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Running head: Reading in and out of class
Reading in and out of class: A study of 3 adult literacy learners
Alisa Belzer and Sandra Abrams Rutgers University
Graduate School of Education
10 Seminary Place
New Brunswick, NJ 08901
(732) 932-7496, extension 8234
belzera@rci.rutgers.edu
Abstract
A clear relationship between reading practice and reading achievement has been established for young developing readers. Yet, little is known about what adult developing readers who participate in literacy programs understand and do to improve their reading outside of class. Given that they often spend little time in class practicing their reading, this issue is particularly important. This study of 3 adult learners interactions with text outside of class, indicate that their motivation to practice reading is influenced not only by broad characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, and educational level, but also by their own beliefs about what they can do to help themselves improve, the messages and supports that teachers provide regarding reading practice, and contextual factors in their homes including access to print and family attitudes about their learning to read.
Reading in and out of class: A study of 3 adult literacy learners
Diane was an adult GED student attending a learner-centered, womens education program in Philadelphia. Encouraged by her teacher to read something of interest to her, Diane chose two books, which she completed quickly. Despite her enjoyment and engagement, Diane reported that she did not plan to read more, even when offered help in selecting books she might similarly enjoy. Diane remained unconvinced about the potential of reading for pleasure ADDIN EN.CITE Belzer20022410241Belzer, A.2002"I don't crave to read:" School literacy in adulthoodJournal of adolescent and adult literacy462(Belzer, 2002). Donna Earl, a teacher in rural Georgia, talked often with her students about the importance of reading at home. She read aloud to her students, and she provided a classroom library from which they could choose books. Nevertheless, her students revealed that they read little outside of class ADDIN EN.CITE Earl19971740174Earl, D.1997Learning to love readingFocus on Basics113-4(Earl, 1997). Edna, Juan, and Margaret, participants in the study described here, attended classes at a large, urban, school district-based adult basic education program in New Jersey. They did not have access to a class library, nor were they encouraged to read outside of class. While these three students did read some outside of class, they did not necessarily see daily practice as an important ingredient in reaching their literacy goals.
Given the extensive research on children which has found a positive relationship between time spent reading and reading achievement ADDIN EN.CITE Anderson19884650465Anderson, R. C.Wilson, P.T.Fielding, L.G.1988Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of schoolReading Research Quarterly233285-303Stanovich19924670467Stanovich, K. E.Cunningham, A. E.1992Studying the consequences of literacy within a literate society: The cognitive correlates of print exposureMemory and cognition20151-68Taylor19904660466Taylor, B. M.Frye, B. J.Maruyama, G. M.1990Time spent reading and reading growthAmerican Educational Research Journal272351-362Wigfield19974680468Wigfield, A.Guthrie, J. T.1997Relations of children's motivation for reading to the amount and breadth of their readingJournal of educational psychology893420-432Goodman19964791479Goodman, K.1996On readingPortsmouth, NJHeinemannSmith19944801480Smith, F.1994Understanding readingHillsdale, NJErlbaum5th(Anderson, Wilson, & Fielding, 1988; Goodman, 1996; F. Smith, 1994; Stanovich & Cunningham, 1992; B. M. Taylor, Frye, & Maruyama, 1990; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997), these brief anecdotes raise important questions about what adults who are participating in literacy programs know to do and actually do to improve their literacy skills during their day to day life outside of class. These examples point to the importance of understanding what supports and impedes students efforts to act on their understandings. The main focus of the study described here, which is aimed at beginning to address these questions, is on adult learners interactions with reading in their day to day lives.
Much of the research on adult literacy learners reading development has focused on issues and techniques related to formal instruction. However, these adults may spend as little as 3 hours a week in adult literacy programs, and programs that do provide more instructional hours often focus on developing a diverse set of skills that could only tangentially include reading (e.g., workforce readiness and development, so-called life skills, math). It seems unlikely that most adult struggling readers will significantly improve their skills just by attending a program because they simply do not spend enough time reading there to become fully competent readers. It is important, then, for researchers and practitioners to focus also on time outside of formal learning settings to understand the ways in which adults intentionally and unintentionally interact with literacy to improve their skills and increase the likelihood of meeting their goals for using reading and writing in their daily lives. The brief anecdotes above illustrate that without more explicit and targeted interventions on the part of practitioners, many adult developing readers will not or can not take the opportunity to read more outside of class.
Adult Reading Practices
This study is predicated on the notion that learning the technical skills of reading and writing is necessary, but certainly not sufficient, to actually acquiring literacy skills--that is, the ability to skillfully use reading and writing within the social worlds in which the individual functions ADDIN EN.CITE Gee19964631463Gee, J. P.1996Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discoursesBristol, PATaylor & Francis(Gee, 1996). Acquisition is achieved by practicing the skill within the social context that it is used. Generally, this learning is supported and nurtured by a kind of apprenticeship relationship between readers and developing readers, imitation by novices of experts, trial and error, and construction of knowledge by learning from experience (Kolb, 1984). In the case of reading, this would suggest that acquisition occurs by practicing in the contexts where reading takes place, in the company of and with help from other readers, using the texts that are naturally present in those settings.
Previous research on adult reading practices has clustered in three different areas. Medium and large scale studies of readership have focused on quantifying the amount of time adults spend reading, and defining the types of materials they actually read ADDIN EN.CITE Smith19954600460M. C. Smith1995Differences in adults' reading practices and literacy proficienciesReading Research Quarterly312196-219Smith199945910459Smith, M. C.Stahl, N. A.1999Adults reading practices and activities: Age, educational and occupational effectsEducational Resources Information CenterED 450 339Smith20004690469Smith, M. C.2000The real-world reading practices of adultsJournal of Literacy Research32125-52Smith199945910459Smith, M. C.Stahl, N. A.1999Adults reading practices and activities: Age, educational and occupational effectsEducational Resources Information CenterED 450 339Smith19954600460M. C. Smith1995Differences in adults' reading practices and literacy proficienciesReading Research Quarterly312196-219Smith19954600460M. C. Smith1995Differences in adults' reading practices and literacy proficienciesReading Research Quarterly312196-219(M. C. Smith, 1995, 2000; M. C. Smith & Stahl, 1999). These types of studies have also enabled researchers to look at the relationships between broad reader characteristics such as age, gender, educational attainment, and occupation, and reading practices. Typically these studies depend on self report, despite known problems ADDIN EN.CITE McQuillan20014770477McQuillan, J.Au, J.2001The effect of print access on reading frequencyReading Psychology223225-248(McQuillan & Au, 2001) with this methodology. This work has consistently shown that a range of reader characteristics do influence what and how much adults read.
Another strand of research has sought to understand adult reading from a socio-cultural perspective. These kinds of studies have led to detailed descriptions and analyses of how, why, with whom, and under what circumstances adults read, uncovering the multiple ways reading is shaped by social contexts ADDIN EN.CITE Barton19984641464Barton, D.Hamilton, M.1998Local literacies: Reading and writing in one communityNew YorkRoutledgeNeilsen198914114Neilsen, L.1989Literacy and living: The literate lives of three adultsPortsmouth, NHHeinemannTaylor19881891189Taylor, D.Dorsey-Gaines, C.1988Growing up literate: Learning from inner-city familiesPortsmouth, NHHeinemann(Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Neilsen, 1989; D. Taylor & Dorsey-Gaines, 1988). They have deepened our knowledge of the complex and varied ways there are to read, and how race, class, gender and other factors influence how texts are used, understood, and in what ways they impel action.
A third area of study has sought to understand why readers read (or dont read). This work often centers on deepening our understanding of motivations for reading. It has honed in on the importance of understanding readers goals, beliefs and values and shows a strong link between motivation (or positive attitudes and interest) and the amount of time spent reading ADDIN EN.CITE Wigfield19974730473Wigfield, A.1997Reading motivation: A domain-specific approach to motivationEducational Psychology32259-68McCombs19974740474McCombs, B. L.1997Commentary: Reflections on motivations for reading--Through the looking glass of theory, practice, and reader experiencesEducational Psychology322125-134Wigfield19974730473Wigfield, A.1997Reading motivation: A domain-specific approach to motivationEducational Psychology32259-68(McCombs, 1997; Wigfield, 1997), an important ingredient in reading achievement. Guthrie & Wigfield ADDIN EN.CITE Guthrie19994760476Guthrie, J. T.Wigfield, A.1999How motivation fits into a science of readingScientific studies of reading33199-205(1999) identified five motivational processes that relate to the duration and quantity of reading. These are task mastery goals, intrinsic motivation, a sense of self-efficacy, personal interest, and beliefs about the readers role in transacting with texts. These processes are internal, but motivation also has been found to have external sources. Baker, et al., ADDIN EN.CITE Baker19974750475Baker, L.Scher, D.Mackler, K.1997Home and family influences on motivations for readingEducational Psychology32269-82(1997) make clear that there is a relation between reading motivation and the messages communicated by parents to children about the value of reading. Though most of the research on reading motivation has focused on children, one study (Schraw & Bruning, 1999) devoted to adult reading practices centered on the ways in which beliefs and understandings motivate adults.
Here, researchers looked at motivation to read and belief systems about reading as individual traits that also influence the quantity of reading, the selection of reading texts, and the process through which readers make sense of text.
Much of the work related to adult reading practices and the ways in which motivation influences them has been done with a general population. However, a few studies have focused specifically on the reading practices of adult literacy learners. Sheehan-Holt & Smith ADDIN EN.CITE Sheehan-Holt20004610461Sheehan-Holt, J. K.Smith, M. Cecil2000Does basic skills education affect adults' literacy proficiencies and reading practices?Reading Research Quarterly352226-243(2000) tried to address the question of whether basic skills education affects adults literacy proficiencies and reading practices. They found that adults who participated in basic skills education read a greater variety of texts, but such literacy practices did not necessarily transfer to higher reading scores. Purcell-Gates, et al., ADDIN EN.CITE Purcell-Gates20021190119Purcell-Gates, V.Degener, S.C.Jacobsen, E.Soler, M.2002Impact of authentic adult literacy instruction on adult literacy practicesReading Research Quarterly37170-92January-March 2002(2002) focused on the relationship between literacy instruction and actual changes in practice by doing extensive observations and interviews in students homes, and compared the outcomes of instruction in several different types of programs (i.e., those that used real life activities and materials and shared decision making between students and teachers, and those that did not). Similar to Sheehan-Holt & Smith, they found that the type of literacy instruction does influence reading practices in terms of frequency and type of texts read. However, the Purcell-Gates, et al., study focuses on the connection between program processes and learner outcomes, skipping over adults own efforts to improve their reading while actually participating in programs.
The study reported here attempts to begin to address several gaps in the literature, albeit on a very small and exploratory scale. It focuses on adult reading practices, but the sample is limited to adults who are participating in basic skills programs, uses both self-report and observational data, and looks at the participating learners reading practices during their day-to-day lives while they were attending the program. Although motivation has been well-established as an important factor in reading practices, this study takes a broad definition of motivation to include not only individual beliefs, values and goals, but also the importance of the physical environment ADDIN EN.CITE McQuillan20014770477McQuillan, J.Au, J.2001The effect of print access on reading frequencyReading Psychology223225-248(McQuillan & Au, 2001) and the social context of home and school ADDIN EN.CITE Baker19974750475Baker, L.Scher, D.Mackler, K.1997Home and family influences on motivations for readingEducational Psychology32269-82(Baker et al., 1997).
Data Collection
The study participants, two women and one man, were all learners in a large, urban, basic skills program offering classes ranging from beginning literacy to adult high school and included workforce development and ESL. They were selected by recommendation of their teachers based on their duration and consistency of participation in the program, their potential to be reflective and communicative, and their willingness to participate in the study. They each received a $100 stipend for their involvement. This cross-case study of three adult learners used a combination of observations (researcher and participant) and interviews for data collection.
Participants
Edna is a 54-year-old married woman. She has five children, the youngest of whom is attending a top state university. Her other four children are all professionals (2 nurses, a teacher, and a computer analyst). She has two grandchildren. She was born in Guatemala and came to the US at about age 16. Before immigrating to the US, Ednas family responsibilities limited her ability to participate in school, but she did learn to read and write in Spanish. After she became a mother, she felt motivated to return to school and then earned her GED. Recently, when she was laid off from the air conditioning factory where she had worked for 24 years, Edna began school again to improve her skills and ready herself for different kinds of work. She reports, I need help with my English, my math, and everythingI need some computer skills. Edna says that she hadnt before realized quite how important education was because she didnt have time to think about it. My life was hurry, hurry, hurry, and I didnt have time for myself to think about educationNow that I have the time, I think how much I have been missing. Of the three participants, Edna reads at the highest level.
Juan is a 21-year-old man. Although born in the US, his father lives in Puerto Rico and he has traveled there frequently. He describes himself as equally fluent in English and Spanish. He is the father of 2 year old twins who live in another city with their mother. He reports that he was a good student before he was involved in a serious car accident at age 7 and spent 9 months in a coma, but he explained that after he recovered he was always in trouble at school. He was transferred from his regular high school to a disciplinary school. At age 16 he dropped out, and his mother sent him to Puerto Rico to live with his father. He stayed there for five years, not attending school at all. After he returned from Puerto Rico, Juan went to his junior high school and asked to talk to kids to maybe put a little bit of education into their minds. He says that he told them, I dropped out of high school. I did it cause I felt like it. And it doesnt feel comfortable [now]You need your high school degreeand college degree in order to make it in life. About 9 months after returning, he decided to go back to school himself. He seemed inspired by his brother and his sister graduating from high school and spurred on by his father calling him a quitter. So now, as soon as I get my high school diploma, Im going to take off to Puerto Rico with my mom, and Im going to pop him upside his head with the diploma! Proving his father wrong seemed to be a primary motivation for trying to complete school. Juan reads at an intermediate level.
Margaret is a 42-year-old African American woman. At the time of data collection she was pregnant and also had a 10 year old daughter who lived with her grandmother and visited Margaret on the weekends. She lives with her fianc in a two story townhouse. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, Margaret moved to New Jersey with her father when she was around 15. Margaret dropped out of high school, at age 18, just weeks short of graduation when her father kicked her out of the house. She reported that school had been hard for her. She was in special education classes and had a tutor. The tutor helped a little bit, but not much, she said. She began attending the adult program 2 years ago after being referred there by a medical facility where she had been treated for an unspecified illness. She decided to attend the program because I got a ten-year-old daughter and certain words, I couldnt understand. She knew the words, but I didnt know what it is and it make me feel bad Although Margaret has worked in the past as a presser in dry cleaners, she wasnt working at the time of data collection.
Observations
Three strategies for observation were used: classroom observation, shadowing, and self-report logs. The general intent of observing in these ways was to capture as natural a picture of reading practices in day-to-day life as possible, both by having the researcher spend time with the participant, and by having the participant document his/her own activities.
Classroom observations. In order to document the participants reading practices and processes, we conducted observations both inside and outside their classrooms. We began with a general classroom observation of the three participants. The focus of this observation was on the reading activities that participants engage in during class. We especially noted what the participants read during class, with whom, and how. This observation created a context for relating the participants literacy activities outside of class to those in class.
Shadowing. In addition to the classroom observations, we documented participants reading practices outside of class by shadowing the participants for the equivalent of one day (a day was defined by the research participants and ranged from approximately 13 hours to 6 hours). Shadowing focused on documenting the reading tasks and processes that the participants engaged in during their day to day lives. While shadowing the participants, we combined participant observation and informal conversational interview techniques. Doing so enabled us to gain an insiders view of the participants reading activities and first-hand knowledge of their responses and perceptions regarding reading tasks in their day to day lives. Discussions throughout the day also allowed us to ask questions about the typicality of activities. Our shadowing took us into the participants homes and communities. None of the participants was working at the time of the study, so no workplaces were observed.
Self-report log. Finally, the participants acted as observers of their own reading by talking into a tape recorder at several points during the day for one day to further document their practices (a different day than when the participant was being shadowed, but soon after, chosen by the participant). Participants were given oral and written instructions on what to record that were based on our understandings (after shadowing) of a typical day for that individual They were supplied with a tape recorder and cassettes. More specifically, students were asked to describe what and how they read, where, with whom, why they did so, and what the activity was like for them. The purpose of the audio log was as a supplement to shadowing. We felt that it might more authentically capture a typical day than the unnatural condition of being followed around by a researcher. Two of the three (Edna and Margaret) participants completed the audio log.
Interviews
We planned to conduct a total of three interviews related to each participant: one teacher interview and two participant interviewsa preliminary and a debriefing interview (no debriefing interview was conducted with Juan who went to Puerto Rico for an extended period shortly after he was shadowed). For the former, we used an interview guide approach ADDIN EN.CITE Patton19902321232Patton, M.Q.1990Qualitative evaluation methodsThousand Oaks, CASage(Patton, 1990) in order to ensure flexibility and comprehensiveness. The preliminary interview took place before the classroom observation, and the debriefing interview followed the completion of participant shadowing and self-report logs.
Teacher Interview. The purpose of this interview was to learn more about the teachers approaches to developing literacy skills in adults, and to learn more about the research participants in-class reading activities from the perspective of the instructor. The interview focused on class reading activities, materials, and formats; the teachers beliefs about adult reading development, goals for the class, and for the research participant ; and the teachers description of him/her.
Participant Interview. Two interviews were conducted with the participants. The initial interview focused on gathering data about their reading goals and needs, current reading practices, what they believe will help with reading development, and what they actually does to improve their reading skills. A debriefing interview was conducted subsequent to the completion of all other data collection as a way to encourage participants to reflect on the process and enable the researchers to get clarification on things that occurred during data collection. Topics for this interview stemmed from data collected from the in-class observations, the preliminary interview, the shadowing, and the audio log. The purpose of the debriefing interview was to clarify and discuss issues and areas of interest that arose during data collection, and to encourage the students to make observations about the research process and their own thinking about reading development after participating in data collection.
Limitations
The effectiveness of the data collection strategies were limited by the participants lack of familiarity and comfort with them, and by the short duration of the study. Shadowing is both an effort to capture life as it happens, and a highly artificial circumstance. We found that the extent to which participants would go about their day-to-day lives without regard for the presence of a researcher was highly variable. For example, Edna seemed at ease, and her actions while we shadowed her matched well with her description of her day-to-day life. In contrast, Juan never spent time inside his house from the time the observer arrived until she left, and he asked the researcher to go places he would not normally be able to travel to. While he did not seem to act out his normal routines in front of the researcher, his choice of activities did seem relatively typical in terms of his involvement with reading--there was very little. It is also evident that the researchers presence influenced the surroundings. At Ednas home, the family mostly spoke English with each other, although they would normally speak Spanish. At Margarets, her boyfriend stayed out of the picture. We assume he spends more time with Margaret when she does not have visitors. Finally the fact that we are female, Caucasian and middle class certainly influenced not only what we saw, but also what we understood. Still, to a significant extent, we believe hat what we saw was a reflection of what was. Certainly in the case of Juan and Margaret, and probably for Edna too (she told us clearly that what we saw was very typical), they did not go to any effort to read more because of our presence. Some of the problems of collecting data by shadowing may have been alleviated if we had spent many days with the participants. They and their families would have gotten used to having us around, and might eventually, more or less, have come to ignore us. However, we believe that our long-term presence would have been burdensome, and we would quickly have worn out our welcomes.
The self-report logs were not especially successful tools for gathering data. Despite explicit directions on what to do with them, Edna and Margaret both felt uncertain about what to record. While Edna basically did what we asked, she was clearly self-conscious and supplied almost no additional information that we hadnt already gleaned from the interviews and shadowing. She reported that there was really nothing more to say; what we saw is what her life is like. Despite our efforts o be very clear, Margaret really did not seem to understand what we were looking for and used the recording process more as a log of any activity she engaged in that was out of the ordinary over the course of several days. Her self-report log also gave us very little information, but for quite different reasons. Again, this data collection strategy might have been more useful if we had used it longer, given frequent feedback, and asked many follow-up questions.
The small sample size, and the short duration of data collection limit the extent to which our findings can be generalized. However, we feel that these very focused snap-shots do present us with some important ideas for further research and implications for practice.
3 Adult Literacy Learners
Case descriptions of the three learners are presented first. These descriptions focus on the participants goals and attitudes regarding participating in the program, assessments of their reading, reading challenges, and progress, and information about their daily context with regard to reading. The descriptions are followed by a discussion of relevant themes that emerge from analysis across the three cases. Implications for practice conclude.
Edna
Although Edna was very pleased to be attending the adult education program, her participation was tinged by anxiety. Not only had she been laid off, but her husband, who had worked for many years as a truck driver, had recently lost his job after experiencing some medical problems. Despite the extreme financial and emotional hardship she was currently experiencing, Edna described the process of improving her academic skills and attending school as deeply satisfying. She was participating in an adult high school program which was designed to follow the school district curriculum (for her English classes, this meant reading poetry and short stories, and writing personal essays based on the themes of the reading selections), but also aimed to address itself to students needs. Her English teacher reported that [Edna] puts 150% into itshe works very consistently and everything you get [from her] is always top-notch.
Outside of school Edna reported that she likes to read in both English and Spanish, and does so on a daily basis. When she has difficulty reading words, she writes them down, looks them up in the dictionary (either the electronic one her daughters gave her for Christmas or a traditional book format one), and studies them whether she is at school, or studying at home. When asked whether she did this just for school oriented reading, as opposed to pleasure reading, she didnt differentiate them. When she talked about reading at home, she primarily referred to reading her homework. Sometimes she finds that the dictionary does not actually clarify the meaning of the word, but she said she depends on it nonetheless. She attributed much of her difficulties with reading to language difficulties rather than literacy problems. She stated that when she left school in Guatemala, her Spanish literacy was very advanced. Yet, she also noted that one of her homework assignments, completed on the day we shadowed her, was difficult because she didnt like the topic she was reading about.
Edna reported hat on a regular basis (several times a week) she reads the local newspaper (she took one from class on the day we observed her), and the bible. In addition to bible reading, Edna reads (mostly in English because the selection is bigger) about the bible, and about people in the church. She also reads magazines that her daughters pass on to her, or that she finds in doctors offices if they look interesting. She uses her computer on a daily basis, reading the headlines on the Yahoo website and a Guatemalan newspaper on the Internet. She spends much of whatever spare time she has doing homework from reading, writing and grammar, and math workbooks, often slipping it in between household chores. When she was observed doing homework, she had read a short passage from a commercial text book. She completed true/false, multiple choice, and matching comprehension type exercises. As she did so, she frequently reread parts of the text, and also used her electronic dictionary.
Since starting back to school, Edna feels her skills have improved. She attributed much of her success to her teachers. When you get people who care, everything [is] open for youAll the teachers [at the program]are very open to help you. She believes, too, that doing her homework is critical to her success in school. Being able to go to her daughters and a family friend for help on homework, as she does, is also an important source of assistance for Edna. Additionally, Edna believes that reading books would help her improve her skills, but she doesnt do this often. She expressed a strong desire to get a library card and borrow books that are stories about people, but complained that her current family difficulties have prevented her from following through on this. She believes that spending time reading would calm me down. Although she spends more time reading on the computer than in books, she believes this is less valuable. The only significant challenge that Edna identified in her quest to improve her skills is when she worries about the difficulties in her life. They can bring you out of anything that youre doing. Yet, she reports that she only rarely lets this stop her. I do itIts very rare when I dont feel like doing my work.
There was quite a bit of text visible in Ednas house including mail and newspapers in her dining room, books in her computer room on the desk and on shelves, notices, coupons, and recipes stuck to her refrigerator door with magnets(she uses every recipe she gets in her nutrition class), and a framed printed passage on the wall entitled The Unknown Guest (referring to God). On the day we spent observing her, Edna went to class, the grocery store, and the bank. During the course of her day she was surrounded by text in all of these places and seemed to interact comfortably and fluently with it. When friends from church came to visit and pray together on the day that we observed Edna, their bible reading underlined our sense that reading is quite fully integrated in her day to day life.
Juan
When asked about his daily reading and writing routines, Juan said, Sometimes I write, I dont hardly read. He does not do homework because he isnt assigned any. When asked why he doesnt read, he said, Its cause I got things I got to do. He explained that he is the person on call for his working relatives, always available to help out with his young nephew or around the house. He later admitted that reading just doesnt attract my attentionI look for somethingthats more comfortable for me. In school, he explained that he reads, because thats what you do there. When Im home, thats my freedom, and I do what I want. When the programs counselor offered him books to take with him for the summer, he refused them saying, Ive done enough. I dont want to read no more.
Juan reports that he sometimes gets stuck on big words cause if the word gets this big, thats when I lose concentration. He explained that If I get stuck with a word, Ill be like isnt that blah, blah, blah--I just be reading it. In other words, he said he skips over the unknown words, unless he wants to really take my timeIf I get stuck on the word, or the meaning of the word, I call [my teachers] to help me. Juan could not identify anything in particular that he could do to make himself a better reader other than completing the assignments at school. His teacher reported he reads (i.e., pronounces words) well, but questioned his level of comprehension. She described him as a restless reader who always chooses to read the shortest thing possible. She said, If its not for some purpose that hes comfortable with or happy with, he wont read it. Anything long, anything thats more than 3 or 4 pages, he gets very bored with.
Juan described himself as unfocused when he first came to the program. However, after a talk with one of the programs counselors, he says he committed himself to coming regularly and working steadily while he was there. Im not into talking and joking aroundI do that when Im on my own time. This is time for my education. I dont got time for that. His teacher painted a different picture of him saying that his focus is inconsistent and his attention span is often short. He spends a great deal of his time in class reading short passages in commercially produced reading textbooks that are followed by multiple choice comprehension questions. He admitted that he doesnt always actually read the passages before answering the questions. Yet, he generally is able to get most of them right. Juan measured his progress since starting school by how many pages in his school workbooks he had completed. His teacher reported that she gives her students reading materials that are practical and relevant to their lives. However, his work folder was filled with photocopied pages from reading textbooks (one to two page passages followed by multiple choice and short answer comprehension questions).
On a typical day, Juan gets up early to accompany his mother, on her way to work, to her truck which is parked a few blocks away. After she leaves, he often returns to bed if he doesnt have anything else he has to do. Once he gets moving, he may go hang out in the downtown business area or in the beauty parlor where his godmother works. He helps out there by washing and folding towels, getting lunch, and cleaning up. On the day that Juan was shadowed, there was almost no evidence of interaction with any text. The day dragged by uneventfully. Juan played basketball at the park, and sat on the front stoop of his grandmothers house, talking to neighbors going by (with a side trip to a small zoo that he and his friend directed the researcher toward, seemingly in an effort to entertain her). The observer was never invited inside Juans house or introduced to his relatives, although one of his friends spent much of the day with him. It seems unclear how typical the specifics of this day were for him, but what felt like aimless hanging out to the observer fit with Juans own description of his normal daily life. Although the details may have varied for the sake of the researcher, the general idea did not seem to. Juan does not have much he has to do, and he has little structure to his days when he is not in school. He seems to operate almost completely outside a world that demands reading skill. He does not drive. He does not work. He does not have a bank account. He reports that there are no books or magazines in his home. Though he can read, Juan does almost nothing where he needs to, and just about never seeks out text to read except when hes in school.
Margaret
Margaret did not articulate any specific long terms goals for participating in the program, other than simply going to school. My goal was going to school and finishing school. She hasnt thought much beyond that. She does see herself going to school not only for herself, but her daughter too. I want to get something for my life for my daughter and so she can get an education, and I can get a education, and we can learn something together. Thats the best thing for my daughter, for me.
She reports that in school the students take turns reading aloud stories about people or the newspaper (although the teacher reports that she usually reads aloud from the paper because it is too difficult for the students). Margaret said that she often grows impatient when another student gets stuck on a word, and despite her teachers disapproval, she calls out the answer. Similarly, when she gets stuck, someone else pops out with the word. She feels her reading is getting better because at first she could only read hard words some of the time, but now I get it.
When she started back to school, Margaret reported that she was very scared and nervous. She said her teacher told her that her reading was terrible, and she agreed. Her teacher reported that when Margaret first came to class, She could not read five words. However, she sees her as one of her successes. She has done amazingly wellShe has made really good strides. Margaret reported that she tries to visualize difficult words in her head and persists in trying to pronounce them, and then it comes to me. She stated that she feels she has improved simply by practicing a lot and gaining confidence that she can do it. Margaret explained that she has lived a life time of being told that she was dumb, but now Im not thinking that.Im thinking I can do it. Im not stupid no more. I can do it. She described herself as an in-between reader. As she said, Im not that good, [but] I try my best. She defined an in-between reader as someone who one minute you could read it, one minute you cant read it. When she read aloud to the researcher, she seemed aware of her errors and was often able to self-correct them. She was also able to sound out many words correctly that at first gave her difficulty. She feels the main ingredient in improving her reading is to spend more time in school. When asked if there was anything she could be doing outside of school to help herself, she said, not right now. She did not get homework assignments and did not do any school work at home.
On a typical day, Margaret rides the bus or takes a cab to school (she does not drive). Sometimes she has to skip school because she can not afford the transportation. On days Margaret attends school, she comes directly home afterwards. She reports that at home she looks at her mail and the newspaper. She also says that she reads the bible and other religious materials frequently. When she has difficulty decoding something, she seeks help from her fianc. He often reads the newspaper aloud to her. Margaret always keeps the TV on when shes home. She likes to watch shows about animals, but she said she also likes to watch games shows that involve figuring out words.
Margaret lives in a fairly isolated residential area. When she grocery shops, she has to take a cab to the store. Although she doesnt make shopping lists, Margaret reports that she does read when she goes shopping, I have to read stuff there to buy something because I might buy the wrong thing. Youve got to read it. She also reads directions and recipes on food boxes. To fill the day, she often goes for walks and used to like to ride her bicycle before she got pregnant. In other words, her interaction with reading is fairly limited to anything with print that is in, or comes to, her house. On the day she was shadowed, she did not leave her house. There is a scant amount of print material in her home, and the time she spends engaged with it is short.
Discussion
The descriptions of the three adult learners reading lives provided here illustrate important shaping factors that include, but go well beyond, current conceptions of reading motivation and are much more specific than the broad reader characteristics identified by the research on readership. They help us understand that adult developing readers reading practices are not just the product of internal attributes assumed in much of the motivation and readership research literature. Rather, the data make clear that instructors, others in the home, and the learners home and community environment all work together to play a role in the quantity and quality of reading practice that adult readers may engage in. The data also indicate that the condition of simply being an a a dult plays a role in why, what, how, and how much adults read, and that because of this (and other factors as well), research findings derived by working with children can not be applied directly to adult developing readers. In this discussion, we shall first focus on a cross case comparison of what and how much these three adults read, and then look at this information in relationship to some of the shaping factors that may influence their activities.
I dont hardly read cause I got things I got to do: Reading practices across the three cases
Given the research on reader characteristics and readership discussed above, it is unsurprising that the three research participants interact with text in diverse ways both quantitatively and qualitatively. Research indicates that their different ages, occupational experiences, parenting responsibilities, reading ability, and other characteristics play a role in text choice and frequency. At one end of the extreme, Edna reads a range of texts every day. She reads as part of fulfilling her adult responsibilities, she reads to stay informed, she reads for spiritual reasons, and she reads to do schoolwork. At the other extreme, Juan seems to find little reason to read at all outside of class. It seems likely that the Matthew Principle of reading acquisition that Stanovich ADDIN EN.CITE Stanovich19864620462Stanovich, K. E.1986Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacyReading Research Quarterly21360-407(1986) identified among children--better readers read more which in turn further improves their reading while the opposite occurs with struggling readers-- might apply as well to adults. However, Margaret, the most struggling reader of the three, seems to use reading more in her day to day life than Juan. Although isolated, with little access to print, she does read some on a daily basis. She in turn, has shown significant progress in her reading.
Given the up-close, detailed, albeit brief, accounts of these adults reading lives, however, it seems that the differences in their reading behaviors can not be explained simply by identifying general demographic factors or reading levels. These factors seem to include a complex interaction among teacher messages and behaviors, the home environment, and beliefs and understandings about reading development. While these shaping factors could fit broadly under the beliefs/goals/values construct of current research on reading motivation in children, the day-to-day realities and demands of adult life seem implicated in far more significant ways than the explanations of childrens motivations to read.
Difficultiesbring you out of anything that youre doing: Shaping factors that influence reading practices across the 3 cases
Adults beliefs and understandings about reading development. The fact that Edna persistently does school work outside of school and states the belief that reading books would help her improve her skills indicates that she understands the relationship between practice and achievement. However, she had difficulty acting on this understanding, and instead put most of her available time into skill work, rather than actual reading, explaining that she couldnt find the time to get to the library. Neither Juan nor Margaret identified reading practice of any kind as something they could do to help themselves, even when asked directly what actions they could take to help themselves reach their goals for reading improvement. In fact, when offered books (although they were likely text books) to take with him for the summer, Juan refused them. He explained, Ive done enough. I dont want to read no more. Margaret did acknowledge that practice had been an important ingredient in her growth as a reader, but saw school as the only place to do it. She could not name any actions she could take to help herself improve other than spend more time in school.
For Juan this set of beliefs means that reading doesnt attract my attention. He felt that when school was over, expectations that he would spend time reading should also be over. He explained, When Im home thats my freedom, and I do what I want. This virtually never includes reading. Apparently Margaret too feels that school is where reading practice takes place. While she acknowledged the importance of practice in her own reading achievement, she explained that the most important thing she could do to help herself would be to attend more school.
All three of these adults seem to carry with them a persistent idea that the reading that really counts--that which can help them reach their goals--is school reading (i.e., school-like texts). Even Edna, who said she believed she should read more books, put her considerable effort into completing exercises, rather than spend the time engaging in more authentic reading tasks. When asked what the best thing was that could do to help herself improve her skills, she replied, If I do my homework, I will be better in everything that want to do. If I come to school, and I dont do my homework, I would never learn. The school-type texts that these adults are generally reading typically ask for an efferent rather than aesthetic response ADDIN EN.CITE Rosenblatt19784811481Rosenblatt, L. M.1978The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work.Carbondale, ILSouthern Illinois University Press(Rosenblatt, 1978). These responses ask far less of readers, doing little to engage them as active participants in their reading, and making reading for readings sake far less appealing ADDIN EN.CITE Beers19964720472Beers, G. K.1996No time, no interest, no way! The 3 voices of aliteracySchool library journal423110-113(Beers, 1996). Beers describes these kind of readers as passivereading only to finish the assignment, not to connect intimately with the words (p. 111). While Edna brings a passion to her work, she acknowledges that the texts she reads are not very interesting. Juan clearly resists reading anything more than absolutely necessary. Margaret can only imagine school as the place to improve reading. Their experiences in the program did little to dispel their beliefs and alter their practices. Rather, these three adults seem to carry with them powerful, not always helpful, messages about reading from their years in school ADDIN EN.CITE Belzer2002241, p. 1110241Belzer, A.2002"I don't crave to read:" School literacy in adulthoodJournal of adolescent and adult literacy462(Belzer, 2002, p. 111). Thus their own preconceived notions of reading seem to work, to some extent, against the likelihood of their engaging in extensive reading practice outside of class.
Teacher messages and behaviors regarding reading. It seems likely that instructors could play an important role helping learners recognize the importance of reading practice. The data suggest that educators may need to help adult learners re-evaluate their beliefs, values, and goals regarding reading, especially if belief systems are bound by images of school-like reading, which inhibit the range and quality of texts read. Teachers also need to emphasize and maximize the conditions that can support increased reading practice. As noted earlier, none of the teachers at the program where these three adults attend classes has a class library, and nand one places a strong emphasis on outside reading or the important role of practice in reading achievement. Only Edna got work to do at home, and it is exactly the same as the work she does in school. In other words, neither implicitly nor explicitly have these three adults teachers helped them to understand that practicing reading, above and beyond what they can accomplish during the few hours of class they attend each week, is of great importance if they are to eventually reach their goals. The fact that teachers may not take an active role in promoting reading practice, for whatever reasons, makes it seem unlikely that those who are not already inclined to do so will increase the types of reading they engage in or the amount of time they read outside of class--at least not enough to improve reading above and beyond what would happen through class participation alone. In other words, the data indicate that adults with many demands, interests, concerns, and challenges in their lives may not choose, be able to, or even think to increase the amount of time they spend reading outside of class without support, motivation, and encouragement from their teachers.
The home environment. There were at least two elements of the home environment that seem relevant to these three adults involvement in reading and are probably intertwined with learner beliefs and teacher messages about reading practice. These are their access to print, and the support and interest of their family members. In their study of adolescents, McQuillan and Au ADDIN EN.CITE McQuillan20014770477McQuillan, J.Au, J.2001The effect of print access on reading frequencyReading Psychology223225-248(2001) found that those with more access to books and magazines in the home, and at public libraries, read more. Although no similar study has been carried out with adults, it seems logical to surmise similar results. In fact, Juan, the person with the least access to text, seems to read the least; by reading less he is decreasing his chances of reaching his reading goals. Similarly, Edna, with reading materials throughout her home and opportunities and expectations for interacting with text throughout her day, reads the most. The relationship between access to print and engagement with reading among these 3 adults is open to debate since the study numbers are so small and there are likely other factors at play. However, it is logical to assume that someone who has more to read within in his or her environment is likely to read more than someone who does not.
Also related to the home environment is the role that other family members play in encouraging or discouraging the adult learner to read, work hard, and improve his/her skills. Baker, et al., ADDIN EN.CITE Baker19974750475Baker, L.Scher, D.Mackler, K.1997Home and family influences on motivations for readingEducational Psychology32269-82(1997) make clear that parents play an important shaping role in their childrens beliefs about reading and their motivation to read. However, we have no research on the role that adult children and spouses play in motivating adult students to do the same. Yet, the data indicate that family members are an important part of the mix. Edna gave us several examples of her familys support and involvement in her reading development, and learning more generally, that seemed extremely important to her. Her daughters gave her an electronic dictionary as a Christmas gift. Her husband picked out a math book for her to use as a supplement to her school materials. Her son helped her correct an essay she had written for class. Her son-in-law fixed her printer so she could print it out. She reported that her daughters and a close friend of the family are important resources for her when she needs help with her homework. Her daughters recognize and exclaim over her progress.
In contrast, Margaret and Juan have little support or encouragement for their efforts. They both seem to be working against a negative self-image of themselves as learners that their fathers planted early on. Although Margarets boyfriend sometimes acts as a literacy helper by reading the newspaper to her and helping her with personal business, she did not report any involvement on his part in her learning. Thus, he helps create a literate environment for her where there might otherwise be nearly none, but he is not particularly involved in supporting her reading development beyond using his own skills to give her access to print. Similarly, though SSimiJuans mother frequently checked up on his attendance when he first started participating at the program, she seemed to pay no attention to his actual progress, or the work that he was doing. Neither Margaret nor Juan had the deep support that Edna enjoyed. If they were going to gain access to reading materials and practice reading more outside of class, it would have been without advice or help from their teachers, or or orthe support or encouragement from their family members, and they would have had to make significant efforts to get more to read. This seems unlikely, and the data confirm this.
Implications
While debates continue to rage about best practices for reading instruction, and calls for more research are made, this very small scale study offers some straightforward implications for practice. Although teachers can only work to improve what goes on in their classrooms, and must accept that the demands of adult life may mitigate against many of their efforts to encourage reading outside of class, they should be aware of what they can do to at least increase the potential of adult literacy learners reading in their day- to-day lives.
Many motivation researchers suggest that an important element in building intrinsic motivation to read in children is to provide learning opportunities based on their interests and curiosities ADDIN EN.CITE McCombs19974740474McCombs, B. L.1997Commentary: Reflections on motivations for reading--Through the looking glass of theory, practice, and reader experiencesEducational Psychology322125-134(McCombs, 1997). However, the data here indicate that a precursor to taking this step for adult learners is to help them understand the importance of reading more each day, reading widely from a range of texts, and reading for a range of purposes (information, pleasure, as well as skill development). An important part of this process may be encouraging adult learners to engage in revisiting, revising, and restorying ADDIN EN.CITE Randall19962611261Randall, W.F.1996Restorying a life: Adult education and transformative learningBirren, J.E.Aging and biography: Explorations in adult developmentNew YorkSpringpp. 225-247(Randall, 1996) their beliefs about reading and texts through reflection on the past and analyses of current experiences. This is a more complex and sophisticated task than teachers of young children must take on because it involves more than just winning over converts by offering them good books. However, hooking them with truly compelling reading materials is also important. To do this, Jarvis ADDIN EN.CITE Jarvis20034560456Jarvis, C. A.2003Desirable reading: The relationship between women students' lives and their reading practicesAdult education quarterly534261-276August 2003(2003) argues that it is important to bring popular fiction into the classroom, as well as more traditional texts.
Access to text is another important ingredient in encouraging outside of class reading. An important starting point is providing a classroom (or easily accessible) library with a range of books, magazines, and other print materials in a variety of genres and levels of difficulty. Beers ADDIN EN.CITE Beers19964720472Beers, G. K.1996No time, no interest, no way! The 3 voices of aliteracySchool library journal423110-113(1996) points out, however, that what often gets someone who has been a motivated and engaged reader but has lost the habit re-engaged is different from what will work with what she calls uncommitted or unmotivated readers. She suggests that choice is important, but that it should be limited so that they do not feel overwhelmed. She also suggests that these type of readers may prefer non-fiction and need a lot of visual cues in the text to help them picture what they are reading about. Similarly this population may do better viewing movies of books first, and then reading the book. It is unlikely that most adult struggling readers will go to the public library and select a book to read simply at the suggestion of a teacher. These adults will need a great deal of step-by-step direction in helping them know how/where to locate texts, how to select texts that will engage them, and how to find time to read.
Earl ADDIN EN.CITE Earl19971740174Earl, D.1997Learning to love readingFocus on Basics113-4(1997) took many of the steps described here but still found that her students did not read outside of class. She worked with her students to develop an incentive system to encourage reading, but she also gave them a reading log which they were to fill out and return each week. She found that by the time the incentive prizes arrived (greatly delayed by bad weather), the students no longer needed them. The logs not only seemed to serve as an adequate reminder to read, but they also conveyed a strong and clear message about the importance of reading outside of class and provided a structure for tracking progress. In addition, as the students started reading more, they started talking to each other more. The book-related talk that occurred in class also seemed to spur the learners on. Although teachers can not hope to change the culture of support for learners in their homes (for better or worse), they can work to build interested and supportive networks of learners in class who share and discuss their reading likes and dislikes, triumphs and challenges, thus creating a kind of book club atmosphere that may help adults over the hump when their spouses, partners, or children fail to do so.
The data presented here also have important implications for research. This small scale study only gives us a glimpse of the issues that adults face in their efforts to improve their reading outside of class while participating in programs. There is much to understand about how age, gender, race, class, and reading level interact with the classroom and home contexts that seem to support or inhibit reading activities. We also could benefit by looking more deeply at how prior experiences (especially negative or non-engaging ones) with learning to read impinge on adults interest in reading outside of class. There are also questions about the ways in which adult responsibilities at work, in the community, and at home both make interactions with text a daily occurrence and support growth, and create distractions and time interference. Finally, although book reading is shown to be important in childrens achievement, we know little about its relative importance in the broad array of texts adults could and need to read that also involve reading practice. Because adults can have authentic reading demands frequently thrust upon them, would engaging fully in them (rather than using avoidance tactics as many some low literate adults may) work as well as reading books to improve reading achievement?
Although it seems like a simple idea to argue that adult struggling readers need encouragement and help to read more as a way to increase their potential to become more fluent and capable readers, the data presented here suggest that this is a complex task that needs focus from teachers, learners, family member, and researchers.
References
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