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Roma public life and civil organisations{\*\bkmkend _Toc676501} (NGOs)
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Introduction}{
\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
In the last decade a thriving civil world has been created in Hungary representing several interests and meeting the demands of many; the number of Roma activists and experts in both civil and government spheres is growing, even though their proportion in
 
not specifically Roma organisations is far below their ratio in the population as a whole. This chapter attempts to depict this diverse world by discussing the questions and issues of most concern to the civil sphere of Roma and non-Roma activists, politi
cians and researchers.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab 
It is not easy to decide which organisations should be qualified as significant since they are all relative newcomers. There are nationally-recognised organisations operating on only a limited budget but in a very active and innovati
ve way, and there are other organisations which enjoy considerable financing and yet they remain relatively obscure. There again, there are other organisations active and recognised at local level and virtually unknown at national level.
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 This review lays s
tress on how priorities set by certain sponsors influence the operation of this sphere (whether the Roma civil sphere is built up by communities, whether it transmits messages from the grassroots to centres of power, or whether this process takes place th
e other way round i.e. the authorities sending messages to society) and whether there are existing relations between organisations/institutions dealing with Roma issues and Roma communities.
\par This review also compares a unique institutional system, the minority self-governments, and Roma civil organisations, describes their relation to each other, and attempts to give an accurate \emdash  albeit not comprehensive \emdash 
 view of Roma public life by representing some organisations and programmes.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Historical background: de
cades of socialism
\par }{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
Continuing a tradition going back hundreds of years, socialist Hungary pursued an aggressive assimilation policy towards Roma. The majority of Roma communities (today 80-90%) assimilated in their language, and yet they continue to repres
ent the most excluded minority in Hungarian society. Despite the fact that official policy refused to acknowledge Roma as a nationality or minority, but only as a socially marginalised stratum, relatively significant groups of Roma intellectuals and worke
rs were born in the sixties. These people were sensitive to the Roma cultural movement and were looking for a new community. }{\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 "We visited workers\rquote 
 hostels and played music there, we always encouraged them to play music too. It was a very special situation. An unacknowledged and thereby depressed Roma culture, which the majority only ever saw on so-called \lquote black trains\rquote 
 and commented on thus: \lquote they only sing loudly in a language we do not understand\rquote , suddenly appeared on stage as part of elite culture.\'94 }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Selection from an interview with \'c1gnes Dar\'f3czi)
\par }{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par It is important to mention the activity of documentary filmmakers and socio-photographers who transmitted these issues towards broader strata of society. Interest was raised not only out of scientific curiosity 
or solidarity with the poor and the shunned, but by the political content hidden in this question \endash  speaking about poverty was implied criticism of the political system.
\par Another important factor was the Hungarian dance house movement born in the seventies,
 which again was not free from ideology. It served as a model for the Roma movement, which manifested itself not only in their similar mentality, but also in co-operation between leading personalities of these two movements. The turning point came in the 
m
id eighties with the economic crisis and successive shocks borne by the political system. This process led to political concessions, part of which was represented by Roma self organisations gaining greater control over their affairs, particularly in the a
rea of culture.
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{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676503}Roma civil organisations{\*\bkmkend _Toc590922}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676503}
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\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
The structural foundations of Roma self-organisation were laid in the first third of the 1990s with the establishment of a whole variety of Roma organisations. Support from t
he Soros Foundation granted in early 90s was essential to this process; through the provision of small subsidies to a large number of organisations, it followed a certain \'93expansion\'94
 logic: to advance the foundation of as many organisations as possible. Ma
inly as a result of this, more than one hundred Roma organisations were founded by the middle of the decade, operating with different profiles and at different levels. All this was especially important because until recently the \'93Roma issue\'94 
\endash  to a different extent in different areas }{\insrsid15415778 \endash  }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
was not really integrated as a thematic issue into the activity of larger civil organisations in Hungary. No survey has been prepared on the topic yet, but the experiences of the ProjectR programme launched in spring 2001 \endash  w
ithin the framework of which several meetings have been organised between leaders of these organisations \endash  provide evidence to support this.
\par }{\insrsid15415778 It has to be emphasised that Budapest plays a less central part in the case of Roma organisations than it does in other segments of society. The most significant Roma organisation with the largest membership and the greatest influence 
\endash  Lungo Drom, headed by Fl\'f3ri\'e1n Farkas \endash  is based in Szolnok. Valuable programmes have been implemented in Nagykanizsa, P\'e9cs, Debrecen, Kisk\'f5r\'f6s, Gyomaendr\'f5
d, Szolnok and in a nearby settlement, Tiszabura. Through the efforts of minority self-governments or Roma civil organisations complex programmes have been launched in recent years, achieving significant results in education, retraining
 and vocational training and in organising local employment programmes. And last but by no means least, besides civil sponsors they have been able to mobilise local authority and state resources to implement their programmes.}{\fs28\insrsid15415778 

\par }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 Due to the relatively small civil activity and limited sponsorship, the majority of these organisations still require support. According to an analysis of Roma programmes operated during the 90s prepared on behalf of the World Bank}
{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778  (Zolnay, 2002),}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  programmes financed from budgetary and private resources are not harmonised, and in most cases the sponsors often have an interest in the results of supported projects too. }{
\insrsid15415778 >From among government sponsors, the Public Foundation for Roma in Hungary, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Mini
stry for Social and Family Affairs created a monitoring system accompanied by the strict collection of refundable loans granted to private entrepreneurs. Of the non-governmental sponsors, only the Autonomy Foundation has been monitoring its programmes con
tinuously. In other cases the control of programmes and appropriation of funds is more sporadic and occasional. }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
A considerable part of Roma civil organisations operate on the basis of tender funds available through certain projects a
nd for certain programmes. In other words, their very existence depends on the funds granted. In recent years only a few Roma organisations were able (by responding to the needs of local communities) to establish broad and well-functioning relations to lo
cal majority institutions \emdash  to employment centres, county pedagogic institutes etc. \emdash  and via them to obtain new sources of funding.
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In several cases Roma civil organisations, built from the grassroots up, have found it difficult to operate since the minority self-government system was introduced.
\par }\pard \s27\qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\fs24\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par 
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Obstacles to co-operation
\par }{\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par In recent years the National Association of Roma Leaders (}{\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Cig\'e1ny Vezet\'f5k Orsz\'e1gos Egyes\'fclete, hereinafter called: CVSZE, Debrecen}{\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ) 
\endash  as one of the most successful local organisations \endash  
has launched a number of programmes, from a job registration scheme through a legal aid office, Roma organisations and expert education to professional training. The training programmes of this organisation cover 36 Roma minority self-governments, nearly 
40 Roma organisations, and 31 post-graduate Roma community development assistants. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 
{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 The quality of these relations also depends - to a large extent - on the openness of majority institutions. As these institutions have reconciliation and co-operation obliga
tions only towards minority self-governments, political relations sometimes \'93overwrite\'94
 professional cooperation. A perfect example of this is the question of employing Roma community development assistants, whose training was financed through employment c
entre funds, as employment organisers. Just one third of the nearly 20 persons who received training were able to find places as employment organisers in the settlements although this was the job they were trained for. The County Labour Centre, in engagin
g employment organisers, did not respect professional skills, but rather paid heed to the joint proposal of local authorities and minority self-governments within the network of the National Roma Self-government. The leader of CVSZE said, }{
\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93It is in the interest of the Labour Centre to engage persons trained as employment organisers, but they do not want to come into conflict with Roma minority self-governments (cig\'e1ny kisebbs\'e9gi \'f6nkorm\'e1
nyzat, hereinafter called: CK\'d6). For the time being, six of these people are employed because the president of the CVSZE county organisation rang up all the notaries and mayors in the county.\'94}{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
 In the meantime, the number of unemployed in the county stagnated around 34-35,000. The Regional Labour Development and Training Centre in Debrecen responded to the situation in another way. According to the deputy director for training: }{
\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93It is a real problem. We concluded an agreement with the most successful organisation, CVSZE. Unintentionally, we became involved in this situation of en
gaging employment organisers. I care for people, and now CVSZE is the most suitable for this programme, as they can reach local people. Debate should not be continued at the expense of professionalism.\'94
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Bern\'e1th, (2000) 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 As far as the sustainability of Rom
a civil organisation programmes is concerned, the fact that they are practically totally dependent on available resources is an important issue. Like Hungarian civil organisations in general, the majority of Roma civil organisations too regularly undertak
e more activities than necessary and follow a certain \'93programme expansion\'94
 logic. The main reason for this is that most sponsors do not finance operational costs, so the organisations have to cover these costs by launching new programmes. In the following,
 a detailed description of civil organisations shall be given by main scope of activity.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778  
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778  Minority self-governments
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 The establishment of the minority self-government system has had an even greater impact on Roma self-organisation than Roma civil organisations.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
The system of minority self-governments is a typically Hungarian arrangement. According to the Minority Act which entered into force in 1993, all 13 acknowledged na
tional and ethnic minorities in Hungary have the right to elect self-governments under conditions determined by law; these governments operate locally, and fulfil tasks primarily in establishing cultural autonomy.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 Minority self-governments operating in se
ttlements may create national minority self-governments. The system of minority self-governments was established in 1994 after the second local authority elections. Although experience has taught that the system requires modifications in several areas, it
 still represents a positive step towards implementing cultural autonomy for national minorities.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \line Problems for Roma communities are summarised in the }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 report of the ombudsman for minorities (1999) }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 as follows:

\par }\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 -\tab since Roma minority self-governments receive r
elatively limited funding from the central budget, they are in effect almost totally dependent on local authorities, which have to provide infrastructure and possibly further operational funds for their work. Of course, this guarantees their loyalty towar
d local authorities;
\par }\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\tx720\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 -\tab 
the main task of minority self-governments is to establish minority cultural autonomy. However, this is not the area in which Hungarian Roma experience their greatest problems. Roma communities have unreasonable expectations of the CK\'d6
s and expect them to solve \emdash  mainly social \emdash  problems they have neither the means nor the authorisation for; several local authorities also try to order them to carry out certain tasks, e.g. CK\'d6s have been asked to distribute aid;
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls108\pnrnot0\pnstart2\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}\faauto\ls108\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 
{\cf1\insrsid15415778 lack of information and preparedness are problems for representatives of minority self-governments (this problem was underlined in the report on Hungarian minority self-governments drawn up by }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 Li\'e9
geois, 1998}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 );
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\tx720{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls108\pnrnot0\pnstart2\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}
\faauto\ls108\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 the majority of CK\'d6s have no appropriate information on opportunities, and in most cases they do not receive the necessary information even from the National Roma Self-government.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\tx8647\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par While due to abovementioned situation Roma minority self-governments face serious legitimacy problems with Roma communities in the majority
 of settlements, most government and local authority organs and majority institutions accept them as legitimate partners in all professional questions concerning Roma.
\par 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \fi360\li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \tx8647\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Survey on the attitude of Roma in Hungary
\par }\pard \qj \fi360\li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx8647\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Findings
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par 
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 A considerable proportion of Roma (46.4%) assess the work of minority self-governments as unsatisfactory. 
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 40% of Roma do not believe that minority self-governments live up to their expectations. 
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 All Roma think that local minority self-governments are unsuccessful in performing (e.g. cultural) tasks determined by law.
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Great differences were discovered in the efficiency of minority self-governments operating at five different locations.
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 90% of Roma asked said they were against eliminating minority self-governments.
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
Instead of cultural, language or history education Roma would welcome minority self-governments in areas of labour training, social aid, housing and investigating cases of discrimination. The only area where Roma do not want CK\'d6s to
 play a greater part is performing the tasks of local authorities (e.g. waste disposal, water or energy supply).
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp320 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx8647{\*\pn \pnlvlbody\ilvl0\ls97\pnrnot0
\pnf3\pnindent360\pnhang {\pntxtb \'b7}}\faauto\ls97\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 {\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Roma consider it more important for minority self-governments to support the exercise of social rights rather than that of minority rights.

\par }\pard \qj \fi360\li0\ri284\widctlpar\tx8647\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Koulish,  2000
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri-108\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \faauto\adjustright\rin-108\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi360\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
Leaders of Roma minority self-governments are often members of social committees, sometimes as chairs of these committees too. This leads, of course, to conflict: minority self-gov
ernment representatives often do not have a strong position, although their participation in local authority work strengthens the position of the minority self-government system.
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 More than 800 Roma minority self-governments receive funding amounting to 470
 million forints i.e. on average 600,000 forints per self-government, which of course cannot cover their actual operational expenses. In order to be able to operate they have to win support from local authorities. Consequently, they have become dependent 
on local authority financing; these authorities tend to grant support in order to ensure the loyalty of local CK\'d6s. This, naturally, makes it difficult for CK\'d6s to defend the interests of the Roma community against local authority decisions.
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 The situation o
f minority self-governments protesting against segregated education is a good example: the viewpoints of locally elected Roma representatives were neglected when appointing the management of several local educational institutions and approving their educa
t
ional programmes. Even though according to legal regulations the appointment of minority institution management and approval of local pedagogical programmes require the consent of minority self-governments, surveys show that they do not always take the op
portunity to do so or proposals from those trying to exercise their rights are sidelined by local leaders.
\par In 1997, the }{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Centre for Regional Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  carried out a research project on minority self-governments in Baranya County \emdash 
 focussing, among others, on relations between minority self-governments and local governments, local and national media and national minority self-governments. }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Csefk\'f3, 1998)}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  
Local minority self-governments may play a very important role in informing local communities, but as the research indicated their limited relations considerably diminish this opportunity.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab The life of minority communities may be strongly influenced by how
 well their self-governments are informed about local decisions and whether they have regular, formal relations with local governments. Where these are missing, not only may minority communities find themselves placed in situations they had no forewarning
 of, but also, if formal relations are missing, conflicts between majority and minority are also almost certain to arise. According to the research paper: }{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93
Minority self-governments are often not integrated into the drafting and decision-making process. Thi
s situation is [problematic] because the impact of decisions may be observed in the life of communities much faster and in a more direct way. In spite of this, both parties implicitly accept this situation. These bodies contact each other only if a proble
m arises.\'94}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par \tab If a minority self-government representative is not a member of the national self-government \'93}{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 there is practically no functional relation between the two organisations\'94}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
 which also influences how informed minority self-governments may be. Among minority self-governments surveyed in a sample this ratio was the lowest (10%) among Roma minority self-governments.
\par }\pard \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 The report indicates that relations between minority self-governments and minority communities should be improved: data show that their comm
unication is mainly informal, whereas }{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93in order to develop bilateral and mutual communication \emdash  corresponding to local characteristics \emdash 
 minority self-governments have to attempt to regularly inform their electors on their activities, objectives and decisions. This type of communication necessarily takes place within a formal framework\'94.}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
Finally, it is of critical importance that each and every Hungarian elector be permitted to vote for minority self-government representatives at municipal elections secretl
y, in the same way and at the same time. In extreme cases this could, theoretically, lead to control of the Roma self-government system, although there is no sign of this so far.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\b\fs20\ul\cf1\insrsid15415778 Possible control
\par }{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par  \'93The leader of the local minority self-government and tha
t of the local Roma self-organisation are of the opinion that the local majority population elected two non-Roma representatives onto the minority self-government because the inhabitants were afraid of the \'93Romaisation\'94
 of the town and schools. One of the non-Roma members of the Roma self-government is a teacher from the F\'f6ldi J\'e1nos School who, according to senior members of the school and the town, actually assists in promoting co-operation. The chair of the CK
\'d6 is of another opinion. He believes that majority representation means majority control, and the teacher as a CK\'d6 member has already prevented the self-government from reaching critical decisions on several occasions.\'94
\par 
\par }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Vikt\'f3ria Moh\'e1csi\endash  G\'e1bor Bern\'e1th: Cross grip: battle for the local elite and Roma education at Hajd\'fahadh\'e1za)
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi567\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 
Despite their problems, it has to be stated that minority self-governments have managed to establish a system in Hungary in which Roma communities may or could express their own interests in hundreds of settlements all over Hun
gary. The Roma Self-government in Nagykanizsa led by L\'e1szl\'f3
 Teleki is a good example as it has a very broad and versatile network of relations and there is a complete institutional and service network built around it: among them the Roma Public Museum of S
outh-western Transdanubia, the weekend boarding school, the linguistic study circle for the Bea Gypsy language, the Youth Teahouse, traditional folk ensemble, poetry group and legal aid service. The scope of activities of this minority self-government als
o extends to employment, publishing of books and propagation of general knowledge. His local success made Teleki so well known that he was elected deputy chair of the National Roma Self-government in 1999.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \fi567\li0\ri0\sb120\sl240\slmult0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx284\faauto\ilvl12\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 
\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 The discussion material for the government\rquote s long-
term strategy visualises integration of Roma communities into programmes mainly through the minority self-governments. \'93
It is the legal right and increasing need of the Roma community representatives to actively participate in making different level decisi
ons concerning the Roma minority. Without their support and co-operation it is impossible to implement the strategy, but with their assistance and participation long-term mutual thinking and activity become possible.\'94 The question \emdash 
 to be answered by the long delayed amendment of the minority act \emdash  is whether the Hungarian political elite is interested in adapting the system to this task. The long-term strategy promises \endash  through the amendment of the act \endash 
 a concrete, clear-cut scope of duties, training for self-government representatives, a more systematic training system and a network of experts.
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid15415778 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590927}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676508}Key topics in Roma self-organisation{\*\bkmkend _Toc590927}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676508}
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
A database prepared for the World Bank in 2000, which of course does not cover the
 events of the last two years, but gives a detailed picture of supports granted in the 90s, indicates that the majority of Roma projects supported in the 90s intended to achieve employment and education objectives, while the proportion of housing and heal
t
h assistance was low. This is partly understandable because the means of living of the Roma minority collapsed dramatically in the early 1990s. After the transition most representatives of Roma affairs stated that most of the problems faced by Roma could 
be remedied through equal opportunity programmes.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \li0\ri0\sb120\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\ilvl12\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
The predominance of social programmes is characteristic especially for poor village communities in which a majority of the Roma population resides. The foundation of civil organisations operating here was m
otivated by the fact that they could obtain certain supports only as a civil organisation. The programme supporting Roma \emdash  mainly agricultural \emdash 
 small businesses should be mentioned here; this programme significantly contributed to the spread of civil organisations. The programme of the Autonomy Foundation \emdash 
 which together with the Soros Foundation financed 30.2% of supports in the World Bank database \emdash  finally became a state-supported programme: at present the Public Foundation for Roma in Hungary and the 
National Employment Fund also have similar competitive tender-based programmes, and the long-term Roma strategy of the government plans to extend support too.
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \fi709\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
The Public Foundation for Roma in Hungary distributed nearly one billion (in actual fact 984,437,000) forints in support over four years from 1996. Of this, 307,027,000 forints went on subsistence programmes and 183,601,000 forints on entrepreneurial prog
rammes. The Public Foundation for Roma in Hungary \endash  besides civil sponsors such as the Autonomy Foundation rendering material assistance and the Medi\'e1tor Foundation with its non-material assistance \endash 
 supports community houses too. The support programme orig
inates from the perception that the majority of Roma civil organisations and minority self-governments (especially in small settlements) do not possess the appropriate infrastructural background for their community development activities. Community houses
 offer training, computer services and different cultural programmes, although most continue to operate with relatively scarce resources. }{\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 (Luk\'e1cs, 2002)}{
\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par In recent years several civil legal aid organisations have been founded mainly through Hungarian and foreign private foundations. Special regard should be paid to the Legal Aid Office for National and Ethnic Minorities founded in 1994 (}{
\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Nemzeti \'e9s Etnikai Kisebbs\'e9gi Jogv\'e9d\'f5 Iroda, hereinafter called: NEKI}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 , led by Imre Furman) and the Roma Civil Rights Foundation (}{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Roma Polg\'e1rjogi Alap\'edtv\'e1
ny, hereinafter called: RPA}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 ). The former organisation publishes its activities annually in its White Papers, the latter in Civil Rights Papers. Beyond the strictly legal activities of NEKI, RPA applies other means of legal aid
 effectively. The organisation, led by Alad\'e1r Horv\'e1
th, is extremely active in media work and the shaping of a coalition for Roma affairs bringing together groups of non-Roma intellectuals who have declared their solidarity. (In 2000, for example, RPA organ
ised a large demonstration of solidarity with poor people, which was supported by all important Hungarian legal aid organisations. Several thousand non-Roma were also present to show their solidarity for poor and discriminated social groups. RPA has also 
organised commemorations of the Roma holocaust in the capital for some years.)
\par The parliamentary commissioner for minority rights has been active in Hungary since the middle of 1995. Besides pursuing strict measures against cases of discrimination he is als
o engaged in encouraging a solution to the question of minority representation in Parliament.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 
\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 \tab }{\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 In autumn 2001 the joint legal aid network of the Ministry of Justice (}{
\i\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Igazs\'e1g\'fcgyi Miniszt\'e9rium \emdash  IM}{\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ), the Office for National and Ethnic Minorities and the National Roma Self-government (}{
\i\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Orsz\'e1gos Cig\'e1ny \'d6nkorm\'e1nyzat, hereinafter called: OC\'d6}{\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ) opened regional offices in OC\'d6
 county offices. Lawyers fees are covered from a chapter of the budget.
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\fs20\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 The generation which came of age at the time of the transition organis
ed itself around the Romaversitas, the Kurt Lewin Foundation and the Bronz Club in Budapest, and around the Amrita Association playing an important role in founding the Gandhi Grammar School and Collegium Martineum in P\'e9
cs. The new generation of Roma intel
lectuals is trained within the framework of an education programme elaborated for undergraduates in the Romaversitas and for grammar school students in the Amrita Association. The Kurt Lewin Foundation assists young people interested in sociology and soci
al policy gain admission to university. The Bronz Club provides a venue for Roma youth to come together and debate issues. The Khetanipe Association (similarly seated in P\'e9
cs) provides legal aid, although its main activities are concerned with closing the g
ap between primary school pupils, preparing secondary school pupils for higher education and organising Roma youth studying at universities. The National Association of Young Roma (}{\i\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Fiatal Rom\'e1k Orsz
\'e1gos Sz\'f6vets\'e9ge \emdash  FIROSZ}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ) has been operating from Tiszabur
a since 1991, primarily in the areas of education and culture, arranging preparatory courses for university, vocational training, lifestyle camps and annual national cultural events.}{\fs32\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
Roma self-organisation has been the force behind the formation of several exemplary Roma educational institutes described in the chapter on education. (The only Roma grammar school in the world, the Gandhi Grammar School, is based in P\'e9
cs, there are experimental Roma nurseries and kindergartens in Budapest and P\'e9cs, the J\'f3zsefv\'e1rosi Training School (}{\i\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 J\'f3zsefv\'e1rosi Tanoda)}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
 organises afternoon classes, the Kalyi Jag Association has founded a school in Budapest, and at last but not least it is important to mention the Heged\'fbs T. Andr\'e1s Secondary School at Szolnok, founded by Lungo Dr
om and the National Roma Self-government.) Unfortunately, due to the gradual narrowing of available resources these institutions too are not far from being closed down. Research for pilot experiments }{\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
(Ors\'f3s and colleagues, 2001)}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778  calls attention \endash  among other things \endash 
 to the fact that work in these institutions may be distorted or may even cease if foundations and churches currently supporting these schools and providing in part financial aid from abroad withdraw from Hungary and national resources do not re
place them in time. While pedagogues teaching Roma children may base their work, programmes and pedagogical methods mainly on their own experiences, such a wealth of knowledge has accumulated in these institutions that it would be justified to spread this
 across broader circles than at present.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
For a long time Roma culture only represented a performance style of Hungarian composed music. However, at the end of the 60s, beginning of the 70s there was a breakthrough parallel to the start of the Roma movement.
 This was partly connected to the publication of works by K\'e1roly Bari and Menyh\'e9rt Lakatos and to the activities of \'c1gnes Dar\'f3
czi and the Romano Glaszo orchestra. Through the appearance of the Romano Glaszo on state-run television and radio people could fi
nally meet a Roma culture different from that they were used to, and its success gave impetus to others: in the following years a number of orchestras performing Roma folk music were formed. Folk music collected and published by K\'e1roly Bari (}{
\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 Roma Folklore. Hungary \endash  Romania, I-X., 1999}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
) has assisted ensembles discover the original tonality. Most of the popular Roma ensembles such as Kalyi Jag, Ando Drom, Kanizsa Csillagai (Stars of Kanizsa), Szilv\'e1
sy Roma Folk Band and Lindri have recorded discs and regularly appear at cultural events in Hungary and abroad.
\par The past few years have seen a breakthrough in pop music too. This is the area best suited to addressing non-Roma youth and middle generations. For instance, members of the Fekete Vonat (Black Train) playing hip-hop music sing in Hungarian and }{
\insrsid15415778 Lovary}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  languages, and their Roma identity is a constant topic of their songs. They have successfully adapted black rap music to the Roma environment of the capital (J\'f3zsefv\'e1
ros). Fekete Vonat won a Roma Civil Right Award and the group regularly appears in programmes organised by the Roma Civil Right Foundation, which founded this award. The band Romantic blending Roma music folklore with disco style is regula
rly at the top of the sales charts, as is the band Fekete Szemek (Black Eyes) from Nagyecsed.
\par The activities of Roma writers and the appearance of Roma artists contribute to this flourishing cultural scene.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93
The exhibition of self-taught/self-made Roma ar
tists organised in 1979 was the first remarkable event where Roma (and not only individual artists) represented themselves as an independent ethnic group in an area of art which until that time was not considered by most people to be a part of Roma cultur
e. Painting has remained a significant element of the Roma cultural movement. }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 (\'85)}{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
 No nationality had until that time staged an art exhibition of this type. I organised this Roma art exhibition intentionally. This first exhibition undertook and declared that
 these were not only creative people but Roma too. Being Roma represents a certain value and not solely because it is a value in itself. Another important event was the first Roma folklore meeting in 1981, which brought social acknowledgement of the Roma 
folklore music movement (there were no official institutions of Roma culture, and official acknowledgement of the existence of Roma culture was also doubtful).\'94
\par }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Selection from an interview with \'c1gnes Dar\'f3czi)}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
The Roma Collection of the Ethnographic Museum (financed from the state budget) is still the largest collection associated with Roma culture and history, and it is a considerable workshop producing documentary films. The Hungarian Cultural Institute (}{
\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Magyar M\'fbvel\'f5d\'e9si Int\'e9zet \emdash  MAMI}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 ) and the Romano Kher have major collections of paintings; they also act as the greatest sponsors for painters. }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Ker\'e9kgy\'e1rt\'f3
, 2000)}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\insrsid15415778 There are Roma cultural associations operating in a number of Hungarian towns, and a few traditio
nal music ensembles have succeeded in winning national or at least regional fame. Roma musicians and artists are regularly invited to programmes of Roma organisations or minority self-governments, which organise cultural events at least once or twice a ye
ar.
\par }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 Each year sees a growing number of books published in the Romany and Bea languages \emdash 
 supported mainly by the Public Foundation for National and Ethnic Minorities in Hungary and by the Ministry of National Cultural Heritage. Today it is possible to take 
an official language examination in the Lovary and Bea languages in Hungary, but there is still a lag in the publication of language books, auxiliary materials, and schoolbooks. }{\insrsid15415778 
In its recommendation published in October 2001, the Committee of Ministers of
 the Council of Europe voiced criticism of the fact that protection ensured in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages did not cover Roma languages spoken in Hungary \endash 
 Romany and Bea; this protection devolves an important task on governments, from official administration through education in the mother tongue or bilingual education to promoting vernacular cultural products }{\b\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15415778 (}
{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK http://www.meh.hu/nekh/magyar/4htm }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001c0000007700770077002e006d00650068002e00680075002f006e0065006b0068002f006d00610067007900610072002f003400680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b4600000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00
6d00650068002e00680075002f006e0065006b0068002f006d00610067007900610072002f003400680074006d000000000000400000310000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 
www.meh.hu/nekh/magyar/4htm}}}{\b\insrsid15415778 ).}{\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 Standardisation and the usage of Romany 
as well as slowing down the rapid loss of language in all Hungarian minorities are hampered by the lack of basic institutions. Certain researchers have concluded that the use of the Roma mother tongue \emdash  mainly in education \emdash 
 leads to disadvantages: in Hungary a part of the Roma population is \'93a victim to educational language discrimination\'94 which is closely related to the lack of success and knowledge of pupils. }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Kontra, 1997)}{
\cf1\insrsid15415778  This problem is also indicated in the government\rquote s discussion material on the long-term strategy: }{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 \'93
Conditions for vernacular Roma language education should be ensured in kindergartens and schools. Though the legal conditions are already given for vernacular Roma education within minority education, further efforts are necessary to stan
dardise these languages and to train kindergarten pedagogues and teachers speaking these languages.\'94}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\insrsid15415778 Finally, it has to be remarked that Budapest is not only the centre of Hungarian Roma public life but to a certain extent the centre of Central European Ro
ma public life as well. The European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), the Open Society Institute (OSI) supporting Roma issues and the Pakhiv programme of the Autonomy Foundation aiming at training Central European Roma leaders also operate from Budapest.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Media representation
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
According to the only survey ever carried out on the media consumption of Roma communities }{\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 (Bern\'e1th-Messing, 1998)}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
 there is a considerable, consciously selective and large-scale Roma audience for the media despite its stereotypical represe
ntations of Roma, near complete lack of Roma appearing in TV entertainment programmes, the dearth of Roma journalists on editorial boards and the often devastating opinion of people concerned. According to content analysis, majority media have a strongly 
s
tereotyped view of Roma. However, the gradual improvement in the situation is shown by the fact that, for example, 60% of the 1500 reports generated by the Roma News Centre established in 1995 appeared in at least one national newspaper, and within the fr
amework of their regular media trainee programme organised with the Independent Media Centre ever more Roma journalists are employed in the majority media.
\par }{\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {
\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 In Hungary, two acts (the passage of which required a two-thirds majority) regulate relations betwee
n the media and the minorities: Act LXXVII of 1993 on the rights of national and ethnic minorities (hereinafter called: Minority Act) and Act I of 1996 on radio and television broadcasting (RTV Act, hereinafter called: Media Act). One regulation provides 
for ensuring community rights for minorities giving them access to mass media necessary to preserve their identity, language and culture (Minority Act), and the other regulates the content of media addressed to minority groups (Media Act).
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 In accordance wit
h the Media Act, the national public service media guarantee regular broadcasting of minority programmes, although the minorities constantly criticise this because these programmes are broadcast at off-peak programme times. The National Radio and Televisi
on Council (}{\i\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Orsz\'e1gos R\'e1di\'f3 \'e9s Telev\'edzi\'f3 Tan\'e1cs, hereinafter called: ORTT}{\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 
) controlling the media offers certain benefits to programme service providers prepared to serve national and ethnic minority objectives (annually controlled by ORTT). This was an impor
tant aspect taken into consideration when distributing local frequencies: applicants making minority programmes were in a more advantageous situation, but the majority of local radio and television channels including such programmes in their programme pla
ns have not even started making minority programmes despite their pledges.
\par In addition to the above mentioned, the government also supports Roma media by providing substantial subsidies and advantages in legal regulation.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 In 1998, eight Roma newspapers were published with relative regularity; in addition, Roma media included one television and radio programme \emdash 
 broadcast nation-wide \emdash  and one Internet website. Since then the situation has changed. Printed media have appeared and disappeared, an independent local radio station started broadcasting in Budapest and new Internet sites are available.
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 \tab 
Notwithstanding that a relatively broad newspaper market has been established in Hungary in comparison to neighbouring countries \emdash  supposing that all readers were Roma \emdash 
 less than one percent of the Roma community actually bought the three most important Roma newspapers in 1998. These newspapers may play a significant role in shaping public awareness within the Roma community. That i
s why it is disquieting that the Public Foundation for Hungarian National and Ethnic Minorities (}{\i\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Magyarorsz\'e1gi Nemzeti \'e9s Etnikai Kisebbs\'e9gek\'e9rt K\'f6zalap\'edtv\'e1
ny, hereinafter called: MNEKK}{\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ) which is primarily involved in supporting publication of minority newspapers severely restricted this plurality by deciding that Lungo Drom and Vil\'e1gunk (Our World) 
\emdash  both published by Fl\'f3ri\'e1n Farkas, president of the National Roma Self-government \emdash  would receive 14.5 and 15.5 million forints respectively from the minority foundation while Amaro Drom only received a subsidy of 5 million forints.

\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
The analysis referred to above revealed basic differences in views between newspapers published by the three most important Roma organisations (Lungo Drom: Lungo Drom, Roma Parliamen
t: Amaro Drom, Phralipe: Phralipe) in connection with political participation. For example, Lungo Drom (being loyal to the government in power) described social problems and did not deal with Roma political disputes, conflicts in general or discrimination
 against Roma. On the other hand, Amaro Drom focused on cases of discrimination, while Phralipe was interested mainly in political participation.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid15415778 Support for Roma newspapers through the Public Foundation for National and Ethnic Minorities in Hungary (MNEKK) (HUF)
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx1407\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx2884\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx4361\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx5838\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx7315\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx8792\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx10269\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \cell 1996\cell 1997\cell 1998\cell 1999
\cell 2000\cell 2001\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx1407\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx2884\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx4361\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx5838\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx7315\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx8792\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx10269\row }\trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trgaph70\trrh273\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx1407\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx2884\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx4361\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx5838\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx7315\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx8792\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx10269\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Amaro Drom\cell 2,500,000\cell 9,240,000\cell 9,646,000\cell 6,550,000\cell 7,038,816\cell }\pard\plain \s18\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\intbl
\tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f10\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\f0\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 5,000,000\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trgaph70\trrh273\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx1407\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx2884\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx4361\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx5838\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
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10,380,000\cell 10,836000\cell 12,457,000\cell 11,972,442\cell 14,500,000\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
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\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx10269\row }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Phralipe*\cell 2,500,000\cell 5,300,000\cell 5,533,000\cell 4,000,000\cell 1,000,000\cell 0\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh
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\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Kethano Drom\cell 5,500,000\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 1,995,442\cell 4,200,000\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
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\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Cig\'e1ny H\'edrlap (Roma Gazette)*\cell 9,000,000\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
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\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Vil\'e1gunk (Our World)\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 10,378,000\cell 13,967,842\cell 15,500,000\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 \trowd \irow6\irowband6\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh
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\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 Rom Som*\cell 3,000,000\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell 0\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid15415778 
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\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx1407\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx2884\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx4361\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx5838\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx7315\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx8792\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1477\clshdrawnil \cellx10269\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 * Ceased publication
\par Source: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK http://www.meh.hu/nekh/magyar/4htm }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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www.meh.hu/nekh}}}{\b\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s26\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \i\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\insrsid15415778 The year 2001 was a turning point in the history of Roma media: following several years of failed attempts a Roma radio station finally started broadcasting (for the time being reception is
 restricted to the capital only). Mainly staffed by young Roma journalists, RadioC addresses the entire Roma community in Budapest 24 hours a day and as it broadcasts mainly in Hungarian it may well serve to channel the Roma view towards majority society 
as well. Programmes aim to hold the audience for as long as possible using the light format adopted from commercial radio stations.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab The Internet presence of the Roma media has also expanded, though there are considerable shortcomings: the National Roma Sel
f-government and Lungo Drom do not have sites, and indeed not even a serious introduction anywhere on the web. The website of MCKA contains very little information. The official website of the National Roma Information and Cultural Centre}{
\insrsid15415778  (}{\b\insrsid15415778 www.cigany.hu}{\insrsid15415778 ) covers music, sport and history (at the time this report was prepared it was not functional). From time to time the website }{\ul\insrsid15415778 etnonet}{\insrsid15415778  }{
\b\insrsid15415778 (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.etnonet.hu" }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000208000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.etnonet.hu}}}{\b\insrsid15415778 ) }{\insrsid15415778 
and the website of the Office for National and Ethnic Minorities (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\cs38\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.nekh.hu" }{\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000108040000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.nekh.hu}}}{\insrsid15415778 
) offer new information; the latter is a separate website operated with Phare support and it has prepared an own project based on the co-operation of local Roma community houses and the information flow between the
m. The longest established of these sites, }{\cf1\insrsid15415778 RomaPage }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\cf1\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.romapage.hu" }{\b\fs20\cf1\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000ff00000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.romapage.hu}}}{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 ),}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
 offers plentiful news in daily updates, recommends cultural events and studies, plus it contains considerable information in English. The Kurt Lewin Foundation which supports this portal undertook a pioneering role by publishing a CD-ROM titled }{
\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Introduction to the culture of Hungarian Roma}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  (1996). The homepage of the Bronz Club Association}{\insrsid15415778  (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.bronzklub.hu" }{
\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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75002f0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000078ff0000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.bronzklub.hu}}}{\insrsid15415778 ) s
hould also be mentioned. It mainly concentrates on publishing cultural and political news. The latest initiative in this field is the creation, by the Romacentrum}{\cf1\insrsid15415778  and the Medi\'e1tor Foundation, of a well-organised homepage }{
\insrsid15415778 (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.romacentrum.hu" }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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75006d002e00680075002f0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.romacentrum.hu}}}{\insrsid15415778 
) designed to become an institution-developing intellectual centre hosting homepages of Roma community houses, offering information on legal aid and business advice; it aims at intensifying communication between Roma organisations
. The publication Amaro Drom operates a high-quality website }{\b\insrsid15415778 (}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK http://www.amarodorm.hu).Jelent\'f5s }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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6d00610072006f0064006f0072006d002e006800750029002e006a0065006c0065006e007400510173002f0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 
www.amarodrom.hu). }}}{\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 
{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 Roma pages in the world
\par }{\fs20\insrsid15415778 
\par From Australia through Norway and Spain to the United States there are a number of high-standard sites that are user-friendly in their operation, content and design. These include the websites of the Association of Andalusian Roma (}
{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://}{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 utopiaverde.org}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 /foros-huelva/colectivos/fara" }{\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
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720061000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6800000068007400740070003a002f002f00750074006f00700069006100760065007200640065002e006f00720067002f0066006f0072006f0073002d006800750065006c00760061002f0063006f006c00650063007400690076006f0073002f0066006100720061
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 http://}{\cs38\b\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 utopiaverde.org}{
\cs38\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 /foros-huelva/colectivos/fara}}}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 ), of the "Romani Union Australia" }{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\fs20\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://www.homestead.com}{
\fs20\insrsid15415778 /australiaromani/Index.html}{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 " }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002d0000007700770077002e0068006f006d006500730074006500610064002e0063006f006d002f006100750073007400720061006c006900610072006f006d0061006e0069002f0049006e006400650078002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace11
8c8200aa004ba90b6800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0068006f006d006500730074006500610064002e0063006f006d002f006100750073007400720061006c006900610072006f006d0061006e0069002f0049006e006400650078002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.homestead.com}{\cs38\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 /australiaromani/Index.html}}}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 
) and of the "Balval" (meaning \lquote wind\rquote  in the Roma language) (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid15415778  HYPERLINK "http://}{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 perso.wanadoo.fr}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 /balval" }{\fs20\insrsid8535100 
{\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001f00000068007400740070003a002f002f0070006500720073006f002e00770061006e00610064006f006f002e00660072002f00620061006c00760061006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007000
6500720073006f002e00770061006e00610064006f006f002e00660072002f00620061006c00760061006c0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 
http://}{\cs38\b\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 perso.wanadoo.fr}{\cs38\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 /balval}}}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 ). The highest quality is represented by the website Patrin (}{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.patrin.com" }{\b\fs20\insrsid8535100 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000000f0000007700770077002e00700061007400720069006e002e0063006f006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b2e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00700061007400720069006e002e0063006f006d002f0000000000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs38\b\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid15415778 www.patrin.com}}}{\fs20\insrsid15415778 ) whi
ch contains a very rich and up-to-date collection of materials concerning minority rights, the European history of Roma and the Roma holocaust.
\par }{\b\fs20\insrsid15415778 Roma on the Internet. (Internet Kalauz, 2001. 10.)}{\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Representation of political interests

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 Since the early 90s
 Roma self-organisation has aimed at gaining a say in the political decision-making process and political representation. Minority representation in parliament, as applied in several countries, would be one solution, but the Hungarian Parliament has not y
et legislated for this \endash  despite its constitutional obligation.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab 
The composition of local minority self-governments and that of the National Roma Self-government elected by their representatives is a key issue of participation of Roma self-organisation in decision-making.
\par }\pard\plain \s18\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f10\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\f0\fs24\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard \s18\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp40 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\f0\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 
In the mid-80s Roma policy was launched in Hungary within the National Roma Council (}{\i\f0\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 Orsz\'e1gos Cig\'e1ny Tan\'e1cs, hereinafter called: OCT}{
\f0\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 ) founded by and consisting of delegates of the Patriotic People\rquote s Front and the Cultural Roma Association.
 This body had its own cultural agenda and was organised from above. Members of these organisations later continued their careers in the National Roma Self-government. The majority of the current Roma leadership appeared at that time either as OCT members
 or its opposition. Personal continuity of the two directions has remained unchanged, but hidden ideological and strategic considerations have also emerged: those engaged in politics in OCT (among others Fl\'f3ri\'e1n Farkas, Gyula N\'e1day, J\'f3
zsef Raduly) undertook participation in public life adapted to the prevailing government while others, called \'93Roma radicals\'94 by the party-state (Alad\'e1r Horv\'e1th, Jen\'f5 Zsig\'f3, \'c1gnes Dar\'f3czi and B\'e9la Osztojk\'e1
n who is presently engaged in OC\'d6), took up an opposition stance at the cost of political marginalisation.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }\pard\plain \s18\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f10\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\f0\fs24\cf1\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid15415778 \tab 
In 1993 three large civil organisations espousing different ideologies competed for limited government support: Lungo Drom, the Roma Parliament and Phralipe. Contrary to the latter two, Lungo Drom promoted a policy of lo
yalty to the prevailing government, and by so doing it hoped that it would be able to obtain more resources for Roma issues while maintaining good relations both with the socialists and the conservatives. In 1994 Lungo Drom won the minority self-governmen
t
 elections, in 1999 it established the National Roma Self-government in association with Phralipe for the second time (critics say that this was in large part because in the preceding year during minority self-government elections Lungo Drom itself had ob
tained more support than the other rival national organisations put together). Both the present and former governments have made it clear that they deem OC\'d6 the only legitimate negotiating partner.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 Both sides were represented by their own organisations duri
ng the first free parliamentary elections: Phralipe founded by the opposition and led by Osztojk\'e1n formed an alliance with the Association of Free Democrats (}{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Szabad Demokrat\'e1k Sz\'f6vets\'e9ge, hereinafter called: SZDSZ}{
\cf1\insrsid15415778 ), while the Democratic Association of Roma in Hungary established with party-state support and with N\'e1day and Farkas \endash  at that time fighting even with each other \endash 
 as its members agreed with the Hungarian Democratic Forum (}{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Magyar Demokrata F\'f3rum, hereinafter called: MDF}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 ) which won the elections. At the elections Alad\'e1r Horv\'e1th and Ant\'f3nia H\'e1
ga from Phralipe, standing on the SZDSZ party list, and two years later Tam\'e1s P\'e9li, a painter representing the Hungarian Socialist Party (}{\i\cf1\insrsid15415778 Magyar Szocialista P\'e1rt, hereinafter called: MSZP}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
), had a seat in Parliament. In the 1994 parliamentary elections Ant\'f3nia H\'e1ga won a seat under the colours of SZDSZ and Tam\'e1s P\'e9
li under that of MSZP. At present there is not one MP in the 386-member Parliament who would declare himself/herself to be Roma.
\par Before the elections of
 2002 the Roma community made its first appearance as a serious political factor (due to the fact that, contrary to the almost universal opinion of the political elite, research carried out in late 2001 showed significant electoral motivation among the Ro
m
a population). A survey of a sample of 19,000 persons in the period between May 1999 and June 2000 showed that the ratio of persons definitely intending to participate in the elections was 60% among non-Roma and only 6% lower in the Roma population. Accor
ding to the analysis, a significant portion of the Roma population was willing to support the Right. }{\b\cf1\insrsid15415778 (Lad\'e1nyi, 2001)}{\cf1\insrsid15415778 
\par }{\insrsid15415778 As a consequence, the Fidesz-MPP (}{\i\insrsid15415778 Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party}{\insrsid15415778 ) \endash  MDF coalition concluded a pre-electoral co-operation agreement with Lungo 
Drom; within the framework of this pact it nominated Roma politicians (three on the national list and seven on county and capital lists) as candidates at the elections. Fidesz-MPP \endash  MDF supports the largest number of Roma candidates \endash 
 a total of ten \endash  among parties in Parliament: Fl\'f3ri\'e1n Farkas standing in 13}{\super\insrsid15415778 th}{\insrsid15415778  position on the national list (as president of Lungo Drom), J\'f3zsef Varga on 21}{\super\insrsid15415778 st}{
\insrsid15415778  place (as president of MCKA) and Mih\'e1ly Luk\'e1cs on 27}{\super\insrsid15415778 th}{\insrsid15415778  place (vice president of OC\'d6
) have real chances of winning seats in the new legislative assembly. There are six Roma politicians on the MSZP\rquote s national list; L\'e1szl\'f3 Teleki standing on 34}{\super\insrsid15415778 th}{\insrsid15415778 
 place is likely to become a member of the socialist faction. Blanka Kozma (president of the Association of Roma Women in Public Life) is placed 29}{\super\insrsid15415778 th}{\insrsid15415778  on the SZDSZ national list.
\par In 2002, similar to previous practice, several Roma organisations are trying to reach the 5% parliamentary threshold either on their o
wn or as a grouping of small parties. The Roma Unity Party co-operates with three other Roma organisations and with the New Left (}{\i\insrsid15415778 \'daj Baloldal}{\insrsid15415778 ); B\'e9la Szajk\'f3, leader of the Hungarian Roma Unity Party (}{
\i\insrsid15415778 Magyarorsz\'e1gi Roma \'d6sszefog\'e1s P\'e1rt \endash  MR\'d6P}{\insrsid15415778 ), is in third place on its list. Another Roma party, the Democratic Roma Party, has a candidate in S\'e1rbog\'e1
rd, while the Hungarian Roma Party is fielding its own candidates in M\'e1t\'e9szalka and Kisv\'e1rda. Nobody knows whether Roma organisations have a realistic chance: in ear
lier parliamentary cycles no party organised on an ethnic base could ever get close to the parliamentary threshold (5%).
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\cf1\insrsid15415778 \tab It is more likely that party programmes and bargaining on their implementation conditions are going to overshadow personal issues.
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid15415778  
\par }}srsid5644974 \trowd \irow5\irowband5\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 J\'e1sz-Nagykun-Szolnok County\cell 20\cell 3 years\cell 21,735,000\cell 7,245,000\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow6\irowband6\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Pest County\cell 270\cell 2 years
\cell 63,190,000\cell 31,595,000\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow7\irowband7\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Somogy County\cell 400\cell 2 years\cell 186,000,000\cell 93,000,000\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 
\trowd \irow8\irowband8\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Total\cell \cell \cell 1,061,113,000\cell 402,969,000\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow9\irowband9\ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \cell \cell \cell 
\cell \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow10\irowband10\lastrow \ts11\trgaph70\trleft-70\trkeep\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trpaddl70\trpaddr70\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1842\clshdrawnil \cellx1772\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1772\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1984\clshdrawnil \cellx6946\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 {\i\insrsid5644974 Source: Government summary on programmes related to the Roma minority over the previous two years (November 14, 2000)}{\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi567\li0\ri0\sb120\widctlpar\faauto\ilvl12\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 In earlier years the government 
provided support for the inhabitants of underdeveloped regions and for the long-term unemployed. A considerable number of the programmes were restricted to supporting communal work providing employment for a maximum of several months. 
\par In the programmes related specifically to the Roma community in the medium-term package of measures, the work in B\'e1cs-Kiskun County, J\'e1sz-Nagykun-Szolnok County, Tolna County, Baranya County and in Borsod-Aba\'faj-Zempl\'e9
n County was mainly of a communal, public works type. At th
e same time it was apparent that the government was channelling funds into retraining programmes for long-term unemployed Roma: within the framework of special programmes, community development assistants, job co-ordination assistants and social helpers w
e
re trained. In several counties labour organisations contributed to the training of home-care nurses and church welfare workers, while in three counties Roma entrepreneur training courses were launched. However, the efficiency of retraining courses is que
stionable: often there are still no jobs for those who have completed courses. This doubt is only increased by the report of the Csongr\'e1d County Labour Centre prepared in December 2000 for the Ministry of Economic Affairs in which it is stated: \'93
The majorit
y of employers are not willing to employ Roma even if the maximum amount of support subject to their employment is provided. The exceptions are in jobs where non-Roma employees simply cannot be hired (as they reject the job), e.g. in meat processing facto
ries or unskilled work at cemeteries. For Roma job seekers, communal work represents virtually their only opportunity for employment. Local authorities have been continuously organising communal work, with our full support.\'94
 As this report shows, due to prejudice the only potential employer of unemployed Roma is almost exclusively the public/local government sector. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Gere, 2001)}{\insrsid5644974 
 As is noted in the discussion material on the long-term strategy of the government: }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93It would be reasonable for local governments to elaborate programmes for the long-term unemployed in which \endash 
 on the basis of co-operation between labour and training centres \endash  training programmes and communal work could be combined.\'94}{\insrsid5644974  At the same time, discrimination at the workplace is not properly em
phasised, which in most cases paralyses the labour centres at the time of employment. The discussion material only maintains that: }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93It is necessary to provide favourable financial terms for employers and trainers employing Roma.\'94
}{\insrsid5644974  An important element of the strategy is the registration of Roma who have dropped out of the system. }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93
In order to end long-term unemployment, it is very important that labour centres should provide services not only for registered unemployed Roma but they should contact unregistered Roma as well.}{\insrsid5644974 \'94
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\insrsid5644974 
It is not easy to estimate the actual effects of employment discrimination, and revealing cases of discriminative employer behaviour is also a difficult task. However, in recent years there have been cases of companies ruling out applicat
ions from Roma in their advertisements. 
\par In 1998 an advertisement was published in Expressz advertising paper stipulating that applicants had to be white skinned and anti-alcohol. The building contractor who placed the advertisement was contacted by the Ro
ma Press Centre by phone and admitted that by inserting the above stipulations his goal was to exclude Roma. He said he thought that the ad was not offensive. He argued that his workers were not willing to work with Roma and he would lose clients if he ap
p
eared with Roma employees. An Expressz employee was quoted in connection with the affair: the editorial board regularly monitors the content of advertisements to determine whether it violates legal regulations. Discrimination using negative adjectives is 
excluded. }{\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 White skinned}{\fs20\insrsid5644974  was accepted because in the board\rquote s opinion it was not negative discrimination. However, if the ad had contained the line \lquote dark skinned applicants excluded\rquote 
, this would have been considered a violation of the law and the ad would not have been published. 
\par }{\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 Roma Press Centre, 1998.
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Although the Constitution and certain laws prohibit discrimination in Hungary, it is difficult to prove labour market discrimination 
\endash  even if according to Hungarian law the burden of proof is reversed. Inve
stigations carried out by the minority ombudsman in 1998 and 2000 revealed several legal loopholes. According to the detailed investigation carried out by the office of the minority ombudsman in 1998, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\'93apparently severe sanctions designed to have, in princ
iple, a restraining effect are, in reality, simply not enforced. We have established a shocking fact: that neither in the year under investigation nor in the preceding year was any legal procedure due to discrimination related to national or ethnic affili
ation conducted, and there was not one case of a labour fine being imposed.\'94 }{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
The two core organisations under the same ministry of labour administration, labour centres and labour supervisory offices, do not exchange information related to cases of discrimi
nation. The minority commissioner, who has initiated an amendment to the law to expand labour supervisory investigations in case of rejected employment, said, }{\i\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 \'93
Current legal rules do not ensure maximum legal protection against prejudice emerging in the field of employment.\'94
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 The minority commissioner continued: }{\i\cf1\insrsid5644974 \'93We believe that }{\i\insrsid5644974 
the practice whereby labour supervisory offices reject initiation of procedures in cases of unlawful rejection of employment is unacceptable as in most cases claimants turning to us are not in a position to hire legal counsel and seek remedy in court.\'94

\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590913}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676493}Subsistence {\*\bkmkend _Toc590913}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676493}strategies
\par }\pard\plain \s29\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\b\insrsid5644974 J\'falia Szalai (2001), }{\insrsid5644974 commenting}{\b\insrsid5644974  }{\insrsid5644974 
on the basis of her research among the Hungarian poor, has pointed out that }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93The monthly
 income of Roma families, irrespective of the number of children, is far below that of non-Roma families, and within this backlog it is valid for them \endash  but only for them \endash 
 that parallel with the increase in the number of small children, the resources available for families can be somewhat expanded.\'94 }{\b\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s29\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
Distribution of Roma and non-Roma families by type of job carried out by family members above the age of 14 
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5641\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 Ethnic affiliation of the family\cell 
Type of job carried out by family members\cell Total\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5641\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\trowd \irow1\irowband1
\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrnone \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \cell Maximum casual work or day labour \cell Maximum periodical contracted work \cell 
Regular employment at least in the case of one family member\cell \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  \trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrnone \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5641\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \cell \cell \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5641\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  (Poor) non-Roma family\cell  27\cell   8\cell  64\cell  100\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  
\trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  (Poor) Roma family\cell  46\cell  19\cell  35\cell  100\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  
\trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrnone \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\trowd \irow5\irowband5\lastrow \ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  Total\cell  35\cell  13\cell  52\cell  100\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974  \trowd \irow5\irowband5\lastrow 
\ts11\trleft0\trftsWidth1 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1872\clshdrawnil \cellx1872\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1530\clshdrawnil \cellx3402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5382
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2131\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1134\clshdrawnil \cellx8647\row }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\i\insrsid5644974 
\par Source: }{\b\i\insrsid5644974 J\'falia Szalai (2001)
\par }\pard\plain \s29\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974  
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b0\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590914}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676494}Poverty: {\*\bkmkend _Toc590914}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676494}benefit dependency
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 Jobs available to the poor and especially poor Roma are so badly paid and uncertain that they can only represent a very small proportion of family income. }{
\i\insrsid5644974 \'9329% of adult Roma live on day labour, on smaller assignments, occasionally selling goods on the streets, while this rate in non-Roma families is half that number \endash 
 14%.  Due to this special downward segmentation of the labour market, wages represent a mere 4% of the total amount of monthly revenues among Roma families.\'94 }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Szalai, 2001)
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\i\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
Specific features of Roma and non-Roma households living on incomes below or slightly above the minimum pension rate, per person  
\par 
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil 
\cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth855\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {
\fs22\insrsid5644974 Groups of the poor\cell }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs22\insrsid5644974 Average size of households\cell }\pard\plain \s18\qc \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\intbl
\tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f10\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\f0\fs22\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Average number of dependent children\cell }\pard\plain 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\fs22\insrsid5644974 Family member with regular employment: in % of households   \cell At least one unemployed adult: in % of households  
\cell Family member with at least secondary education: in % of households\cell Average monthly income per person (HUF)\cell Number of families \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs22\insrsid5644974 
\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil 
\cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth855\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\pard\plain \s24\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
Roma family living in deep poverty\cell }\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 5.40\cell 2.75\cell 26.3\cell 41.8\cell 6.2\cell 9,921\cell 194\cell 
}\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Non-Roma family living in deep poverty*\cell }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 4.68\cell 2.53\cell 31.8\cell 38.8\cell 24.0\cell 
10,785\cell 129\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Roma family in need\cell }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 4.44
\cell 1.93\cell 63.2\cell 31.2\cell 14.6\cell 20,621\cell 41\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 \trowd \irow3\irowband3
\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\pard\plain \s24\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Non-Roma family in need**\cell }\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 4.10\cell 1.84\cell 84.4\cell 7.5\cell 65.3\cell 24,781\cell 199\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 
\trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil 
\cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 Total\cell }\pard 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 4.71\cell 2.32\cell 51.5\cell 28.2\cell 31.8\cell 16,151\cell 563\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid5644974 
\trowd \irow5\irowband5\lastrow \ts11\trgaph108\trleft0\trftsWidth1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1701\clshdrawnil \cellx1701\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx2552\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx3544\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1418\clshdrawnil \cellx4962\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1275\clshdrawnil \cellx6237\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1276\clshdrawnil \cellx7513\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth992\clshdrawnil \cellx8505\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth851\clshdrawnil \cellx9360\row }\pard\plain 
\s18\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\tx425\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f10\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\f0\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
* deep poverty: monthly income per person below the minimum pension 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 ** families in need: monthly income per person slightly above the minimum pension 
\par }{\i\insrsid5644974 
\par Source: }{\b\i\insrsid5644974 Szalai, 2001 
\par }\pard\plain \s24\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
Poor Roma are sidelined from those schools providing marketable skills, and largely due to this they are later pushed out of organised labour markets, too. At the same time, there is a disproportionate increase in their chances of becoming locked into the
 
world of those living in deep poverty and almost hermetically sealed from majority society, or into the labour market, welfare or penal institutions, the task of which is to handle and socially legitimate this separation. Severe ethnicisation of deep pove
rty is reflected by the fact that 83% of poor Roma families and 39% of poor non-Roma families live in deep poverty. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Szalai, 2001)
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 \tab  According to other analysts, there is not even one active wage earner in more than half of Roma households. The situation is
 similar in one third of non-Roma households. Roughly one third of the Roma population (including children and old people) live in households where at least half of the potential breadwinners between the ages of 15-74 are unemployed or passively unemploye
d (the comparable non-Roma figure is 9%). (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Kertesi, 1995)}{\i\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 \tab 
According to the Poverty Assessment Report of the World Bank published in 2000 (}{\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Poverty Assessment Report of the World Bank, 2000, Sz\'edv\'f3s \endash  T\'f3th, 2000}{
\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 ), in spite of better macroeconomic indicators h
ousehold incomes have not increased in recent years and the continual deterioration of real incomes has caused an increase in absolute poverty. The increase in poverty was accompanied by an increase in inequality. However, a considerable proportion of soc
ial benefits have been lost: many beneficiaries do not fall into the category of the poor. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 \tab Besides domicile as an important factor determining likelihood of poverty \emdash 
 the lowest number of people who have never been poor can be found among village inhabitants and the highest number of long-term poor can also be found there \emdash 
 Roma origin is one of the most significant factors in respect of long-term poverty. According to the report, nearly 53% of Roma households live in chronic poverty (compared to 7.5% of a
ll households). According to relevant data, the single risk factor contributing to long-term poverty that is even greater than being Roma is the case where the head of the family drops out of the labour market. 
\par \tab According to the World Bank report on the system of social protection: }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93A major part of social assistance is not well targeted and could not enable many beneficiaries to steadily improve their financial positions.\'94}{
\insrsid5644974  In 1997, 6% of households were receiving welfare allowances, and at the same time, the highest }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93leakage rate\'94}{\insrsid5644974 
 could also be found in this field: a major part of beneficiaries did not fall into the poverty categories. }{\cf9\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \fi709\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
Not every modification effected by the government changes this situation: the real value of universal provisions has been continuously decreasing, while provisions aimed at the middle classes and the value of tax allowances have been dynamically increasin
g. The poorest groups of the population are increasingly dependent on local government benefits which, due to discretionary procedures and the often residual character of local social planning, frequently leave them defenceless. 
\par }\pard\plain \s39\qj \fi709\li0\ri284\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin284\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 In 1998 the family allowanc
e was reintroduced as an inalienable right, although its value was frozen. This type of support lost nearly two thirds of its value over the past decade. The similarly universal maternity benefit has also suffered a significant loss in value. The maternit
y grant (}{\i\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 gyermekgondoz\'e1si d\'edj, GYED}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
), however, reinstated in 1999, definitely involves negative redistribution as it is an income-related provision. A further example of negative redistribution is the family tax allowance, the most important family-support 
package of the government. Ranked among local government provisions, particularly significant from Roma aspects, up until 2000 the amount of child welfare allowance was determined as 20% of the minimum pension. However, since 2001 this amount has been fix
e
d and its further indexation is the responsibility of Parliament. The child welfare allowance, however, being subject to school attendance, is definitely targeted at poor families with several children. Its importance is reflected by the following figures
: the poverty risk of the age group between 7-14 years is twice as great as that of the average population; the poverty rate of families with three or more children is nine times higher than among average families. }{
\b\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 (Sz\'edv\'f3s-T\'f3th, 2000)}{\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974  The poverty risk of fa
milies with many children or single-parent families is extremely high. In 2000 the child welfare allowance was paid out to the families of more than 600,000 children \endash  representing the poorest quarter of children in Hungary. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 In 2000 the government, referr
ing in part to the improving employment situation, radically restructured the unemployment provision system. However, the long-term unemployed were least affected by the slow increase in the number of jobs. Even so, the restructuring of the unemployment p
r
ovision system has primarily affected nearly 120,000 long-term unemployed people. In May 2000 the central element of the provision, income supplement benefit for the unemployed, was cancelled, and the remittance period for unemployment benefit was reduced
 to nine months. People unemployed over the long term may receive regular welfare allowance for a period of one year but this is subject to the acceptance of communal work for a minimum period of one month. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Zolnay, 2002)}{
\insrsid5644974  
\par }\pard\plain \s29\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b0\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590915}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676495}Enterprise and subsistence{\*\bkmkend _Toc590915}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676495}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
When talking about the situation of Roma communities after the transition, everybody points out the extremely high unemployment rate. These figures suggest that the overwhelming majority of Roma idly sit at home waiting 
for their monthly benefits. However, many Roma officially classified as unemployed actually work, although they are involved in activities not included in official statistics, partly because they work in the black economy, partly because these are not inc
ome-productive activities although they play an important role in maintaining families even if not representing a suitable means of accumulating financial resources.
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 The most typical subsistence activities available to \endash  primarily rural \endash  Roma are the follo
wing: }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Szuhay, 1999): }{\insrsid5644974 
picking produce and herbs growing in the wild, collecting snails, gleaning crops left after the harvest, agricultural production, day labour, unqualified casual and hired labour, participating in construction work receiving welfare po
licy support, industrial production: making troughs and other wooden items, basket weaving, \'93unofficial\'94 brick-making, trade, usury, social care: accommodating and looking after pensioners in return for their pension. 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 Agricultural production plays an incr
easingly important role in the maintenance of one segment of village families, although according to research in the case of the majority of Roma even the minimum conditions are missing to launch production. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (B\'e1nlaky \endash 
 Kevy, 1998) }{\insrsid5644974 Taking this problem into 
account, the programmes referred to at the beginning of this chapter were launched by the Public Foundation for Roma in Hungary (MCKA), the National Employment Fund (OFA), the Autonomy Foundation, etc. 
\par Roma entrepreneurs have to face the challenges thrown
 up by the problems in the agricultural sector. The profound crisis in agriculture since the transition means that this sector cannot represent a solution to the employment of Roma; such programmes may only provide help in day-to-day survival. 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 
{\b\i\insrsid5644974 \'93}{\i\insrsid5644974 Financial
 aid from support systems in 1996 and 1997 provided opportunities for a total of 7-8,000 Roma families (35-40,000 people) to start or continue subsistence farming activities. This means that with such help nearly 10% of rural Roma got involved in agricult
ural activities and animal husbandry in about five hundred settlements over the past two years. (\'85
) The positive effects of such programmes are not only of an economic and welfare character but they also have social and psychological features. There are pla
ces where the number of people applying for benefits has fallen, there has been a positive impact on the Roma image, in turn raising the level of their self-esteem and giving them hope and strengthened motivation to continue work (\'85
). In the case of most programmes yields are low, a large proportion of produce is consumed by the families and there is not much left for the market. Therefore, the repayment of instalments and the continuation of these activities is difficult.\'94 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\i\insrsid5644974 Source: }{\b\insrsid5644974 L\'e9vai \endash 
 Szijj\'e1rt\'f3, 1998.
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Families in the north-eastern industrial towns \endash 
 where there is no opportunity even for subsistence agricultural production \endash  are in the most hopeless situation.  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {
\i\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 \'93In one of the Roma settlements of \'d3
zd unemployment is practically 100%. People live from the residues of large-scale industrial production by collecting waste metal from spoil tips. After a daily 12 hours of hard work families are able to scrape together metal worth 500-800 forints. This k
i
nd of  "mining" from the crumbling spoil tips has already cost several lives. Conditions here are well characterised by the fact that the local government has failed to repair the frozen sewer, therefore human excrement flows onto the street and children 
\endash  for lack of anything better \endash  play around a disused factory polluted with chemicals.\'94
\par }{\b\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 (Puporka \endash  Z\'e1dori, 1998.) 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi709\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
Urban Roma entrepreneurs form a relatively narrow but very characteristic group within the Roma community. There are numerous examples of the activities of Roma entrepreneurs, from paprika vendors to successful building contractors. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (K
\'e1llai, 2000)}{\insrsid5644974  However, contrary to public belief, few ever become wealthy, and most generate only a limited income from their enterprise. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 \'93
You know, too, that it is forbidden. But I\rquote ll tell you if you don\rquote t tell anyone else. So, early in the morning, I drive to the wholesale market to buy the goods. It\rquote 
s not always paprika, it can be some other fruit, too, depending on the season. Then together with my wife and children we go to a subway to sell the goods from cardboard boxes. We sell everything for 100 forints, this is the pr
ice everyone is used to and it is easy to shout. In the meantime, the children are on the lookout for policemen or public area supervisors. If they come, then we have to leg it. It\rquote s not a problem that they register us because we don\rquote 
t have a registered domicile in Pest, but if they confiscate the goods, well, that\rquote 
s a real problem because we lose all our money. Because it is not a big business, there is only a few forint mark-up on each paprika. This is just enough to buy the goods for the next day and to eat something, that\rquote 
s all. If everything is confiscated, then we have to start from scratch again.\'94 
\par }{\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 K\'e1llai, 2000, 53.
\par }\pard \qj \fi709\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par  The majority of Roma entrepreneurs face similar problems to, and try to use similar strategies as their non-Roma companions. There are 
certain sorts of enterprise where some Roma entrepreneurs are quite successful (e.g. building contracting, antiques, second-hand trade, distributing cheap city goods bought on so-called Chinese markets in rural areas, etc.). A survey of Roma antique deale
rs in Budapest found that activities like the second-hand trade or dealing with antiquities are based on making use of family relations. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Lakatos, 2000) }{\insrsid5644974 
A certain group of Roma enterprises has discovered the loopholes in a stalling capitalist economy and its institutions and in a society deficient in resources. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Hajnal, 2000)}{\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b0\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590916}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676496}Employment and settlement abroad{\*\bkmkend _Toc590916}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676496}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 The westward migration of Roma communities from post-socialist countries became a
n important issue for developed countries in the 1990s. It is known that the British Embassy employed officers in Prague to filter out Roma passengers at the airport, and recently Canada revoked Hungary\rquote 
s visa-exempt status due to the increased number of asylum seekers. 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\i\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 \'93
Even those who only want to explore the opportunities may find they have problems at the frontier. This was the case with E.G., an entrepreneur, and his friend. They went to Canada for two weeks. They did not request refugee status at the
 airport. They took plenty of money with them, as they were accustomed to do. In fact they had about ten thousand dollars with them which they showed to the customs officers. Right after that they were separated, an interpreter was called for and they wer
e interrogated for 2-3 hours. The officers saw their tattoos, their gold jewellery, they saw they were Hungarian Roma (who usually arrive with small amounts of money) and they were immediately treated as criminals.\'94
\par }{\b\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 (Hajnal, 2000) 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \li0\ri0\sl360\slmult1\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \s15\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Immigrants to Canada \endash  as is nearly always the case with immigrants \endash 
 are mainly young people. They sell everything they have to cover expenses, and they base their actions on information from relatives and acquaintances abroad. They are more or less familiar with refugee procedu
res and before leaving they try to obtain documents proving they have been discriminated against. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
 Immigrants mainly cite economic advantages as the cause of migration, but all of them mention discrimination against them in Hungary, too. The tolerant atmo
sphere of Canada is also referred to. Naturally, not all immigrants are Roma, and many only declare they are Roma to get the advantages of refugee status. (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Hajnal, 2000)}{\b\cf14\insrsid5644974  }{\insrsid5644974 
In spite of the fact that the number of emigrant Roma has been increasing in recent years (until the visa-exempt status was revoked), their number was never greater than a few thousand per year. 
\par }\pard \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\i\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 \'93
Almost everybody knows of a legendary TV programme which no one has seen but everybody has been talking about. The film was about life in Canada
, showing how well people live there. Allegedly it was said in the programme that Canada was ready to accept racially discriminated Roma living in poor conditions in Central Europe.\'94
\par }{\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 (Kov\'e1ts, 2000.}{\fs20\insrsid5644974 )
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
Immigration of Hungarian citizens applying for refugee status in Canada began in 1995: according to the statistics of the Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB), our fellow citizens submitted 38 applications in that year while in 1996 the number of applicati
o
ns was 64. In 1997 this figure was at 300, and in 1998 982 Hungarian applications for refugee status were registered at Canadian borders. While until 1998 the IRB as the competent authority rejected the majority of applications, later the number of accept
ed Hungarian applications increased \endash 
 with reference to changed conditions and new data: nearly two thirds of applications were considered well-founded and applicants received refugee status, the first step towards Canadian citizenship. As a result of these
 positive decisions, emigration increased, as reflected by the number of Hungarian applications for refugee status in Canada: 1584 in 1999 and 2484 in 2000. The number of positive decisions, however, has dropped significantly. According to statistics, the
re were 3535 applications registered until December 2001.  
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
The government tends to explain emigration as a purely economic phenomenon, denying that Roma are persecuted in Hungary. However, institutionalised persecution is not a pre-requisite to granting re
fugee status. According to the Geneva Convention on refugees, for a positive decision it is sufficient to show that the local population is discriminative or violent towards applicants and such conduct is tolerated by the authorities, or the authorities p
rove incapable of providing efficient protection for applicants. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (UNHCR, 2000)}{\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
According to IRB statistics, between 1995 and 2000 31% of decisions related to Hungarian applications were positive: this means refugee status was granted in 571 cases. Due to th
e fact that official procedures can last several years, many decisions will only be reached in coming years. }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Roma Press Centre, 2001)}{\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\ul\insrsid5644974 
\par }{\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Unequal opportunities
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b0\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 Education
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 As already described in the previous chapter, unequal schooling opportunities largely
 influence the situation and prospects of the Roma community. The inequality of opportunities for young Roma to continue their education after primary school is more than fifteen times, and after secondary school it is more than fifty times greater than t
heir non-Roma peers. 
\par Today, at the turn of the millennium, there are seven hundred segregated }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93Roma classes\'94}{\insrsid5644974  in Hungary. The three most typical methods of segregation are the following: formation and organisation of  }{
\i\insrsid5644974 \'93Roma schools",}{\insrsid5644974  the establishment of Roma classes at standard schools, and the despatch to special schools of large numbers of Roma children. The formation of \'93Roma schools\'94
 is partly due to spontaneous migration and the process whereby small settlements and regions inhabited by the majority of Roma lag behind, and also to the fact that majority parents take their children out of schools attended by Roma. }{
\b\insrsid5644974 (Havas, Lisk\'f3, Kem\'e9ny, 2001)}{\insrsid5644974 
\par As a result of the development of the new local government system, the passage of the public education act in 199
3 and its later amendments and the acceptance of the National Curriculum, a decentralised public education system has been established restricting the competencies of governmental public education policies as well. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \li0\ri72\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin72\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\i\fs20\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\b0\i\fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590919}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676499}State of health, health {\*\bkmkend _Toc590919}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676499}care
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par According to available data (and bearing in mind Hungary\rquote s already unfavourable mortality indicators), the situation of Roma compared to their non-Roma counterparts is considerably worse: on average Roma men live 12.5 years,
 and Roma women 11.5 years less than their non-Roma counterparts. 
\par \tab When analysing morbidity figures, }{\b\insrsid5644974 Nem\'e9nyi (2000)}{\insrsid5644974  has come to the conclusion that }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93there is high latent morbidity among the Roma population\'94}{\insrsid5644974 , while }{
\i\insrsid5644974 \'93the rate of infectious and digestive diseases is higher than that of the entire population and the rate of perinatal mortality is extremely high.\'94}{\insrsid5644974 
 In respect of the latter, researchers agree that this is mainly due to the poor living conditions (housing and other conditions, consumption of cheap
 unhealthy food) and prenatal care of pregnant women. The fact that the majority of Roma live in environmental risk areas largely contributed to these shocking figures. The heavy industries providing jobs for most Roma before the transition were also extr
emely hazardous for their health. 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 According to research carried out in certain districts of Borsod-Aba\'faj-Zempl\'e9n County and Budapest, sick Roma \endash 
 although this is generally true for uneducated, poor people \endash  usually go to see a doctor only when the physical pain has become unbearable. (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Gyukits, 1999)}{\insrsid5644974  The lack of a prophylactic attitude \endash 
 the enhancement of which, of course, may be expected from health care \endash  is valid for a significant proportion of the Hungarian population. Roma living in villages and in r
ural areas normally have the confidence to go to their local GP as soon as they detect problems. However, their attitude to secondary care professionals, and particularly to hospital doctors and staff, is completely different, being charged with anxieties
.
 The reason for this is that some professionals working in secondary care and hospitals have a biased, disdainful attitude towards them. The Roma population is not hostile to health care in general, they respect and accept the opinion of doctors they know
 well but, understandably, they try to avoid frustrating and discriminative situations. 
\par Research on the situation of Roma mothers in the health care system}{\b\insrsid5644974  (Nem\'e9nyi 1998)}{\insrsid5644974  has pointed out that there are firmly rooted stereotypes and prejudices on both sides \endash 
 that is among health care staff and among Roma women \endash  which hinder communication and thwart opportunities for the formation of a trustful attitude towards health care. 
\par A research project on the state of health of Roma (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Puporka - Z\'e1dori 1999}{\insrsid5644974 
) was ordered by the Hungarian Office of the World Bank. According to the findings of this research, the state of health of Roma is mainly determined by social factors. As far as ep
idemiological aspects are concerned, not the entire Roma population is at risk but rather the poor and particularly those living in slums. However, there is a more general factor which makes it difficult to get a more realistic picture or the facts: the d
eficiency of the statistics related to Hungarian health care. While there are relatively precise data available on mortality, there are no reliable data on illnesses. 
\par Other researchers also find that the communication gap represents a basic problem. (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Kr\'e9mer, 1998}{\insrsid5644974 
) Some health care staff are not prepared to communicate with poorer and uneducated people, particularly with Roma falling into that category. Taking into account not empirical data but access opportunities to various special fields of health care, 
the following areas of illnesses and deterioration of health afflicting the Roma population may be pointed out:
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls96\pnrnot0\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}
\faauto\ls96\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 locomotor disorders and their late diagnosis,
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls96\pnrnot0\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}
\faauto\ls96\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 psychiatric and mental problems,
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls96\pnrnot0\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}
\faauto\ls96\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 public health problems related to sexuality,
\par {\pntext\pard\plain\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 -\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360{\*\pn \pnlvlblt\ilvl0\ls96\pnrnot0\pnindent360\pnsp120\pnhang {\pntxtb -}}
\faauto\ls96\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 dental problems.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 Institutions of preventive care are practically inaccessible to a major part of the Roma population. 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 In the strategic public health programme elaborated by the Ministry of Health }{\b\insrsid5644974 (2001) }{\insrsid5644974 
a separate chapter is devoted to the Roma population, under the title: \'93Handling inequality of health opportunities of severally underprivileged groups of the population\'94
. Although the programme is only aimed at the north-eastern region of the country, its proposed solutions were meant to serve as a model. This sto
pgap programme, however, also bears the signs of the paternalist attitude still prevailing in health care. The most important practical objective of the programme is the establishment of health centres. Within the framework of former poverty policies ther
e were many health centres in the past serving as a kind of replacement for the bathing and washing facilities lacking at home. Thus it is somewhat embarrassing to see a proposal like that among the objectives for modernisation in the 21}{
\super\insrsid5644974 st}{\insrsid5644974  century. On top of all that, the employment of }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93health guards\'94}{\insrsid5644974  and \'93}{\i\insrsid5644974 health centre supervisors\'94}{\insrsid5644974 
 is mentioned in the programme. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s23\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs20\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {
\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 \'93According to interviews with health care employees, the rough image of Roma is as a population primarily differing from majority populat
ion in being at a different stage of civilisation somewhere between "native" or "savage people" and "civilised people.\'94
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {
\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 Nem\'e9nyi, 1998.
\par }\pard \qj \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par The discussion material related to the long-term strategy of the government does not include many specific solutions in this field: besides wishes }{\i\insrsid5644974 (\'93more efficient communication\'94}{\insrsid5644974 
, improving access, expanding provisions, etc.), the enhancement of the district nurse system, the provision of favourable terms for charged vaccinations and the programme for the elimination of slums are also mentioned.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc590920}
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc676500}The language of public discourse {\*\bkmkend _Toc590920}{\*\bkmkend _Toc676500}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 {\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 Social support is a key element in the efforts aimed at the improvement of the situation of Roma communities. The lack of solidarity on the part of majority 
society, the prejudices of decision-makers responsible for the implementation of programmes or the \endash  often experienced and often well-founded \endash 
 suspicion of Roma communities towards majority institutions are factors which can cause even the best idea to end up in failure. 
\par Research carried out by the Hungarian Gallup Institute since 1993 on a continuous basis shows that even inhibitions in respect of displaying open prejudice towards Roma have disappeared in public opinion since 1995. According to other sur
veys, anti-Roma prejudice apparently serves as a basis for making ethnic-based distinctions between }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93worthy\'94}{\insrsid5644974  and }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93unworthy\'94}{\insrsid5644974 
 poor people. When announcing the provision of resources aimed at Roma programmes, mention is frequently made that the government is able and willing to help only those }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93who themselves want it}{\insrsid5644974 \'94
. The reiteration of this statement activates and reinforces anti-Roma prejudices. 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx284\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \fs24\lang1038\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp1038\langfenp1038 {\lang2057\langfe1038\langnp2057\insrsid5644974 
The legitimisation of open prejudice in a country to a large extent follows the rhetoric of public figures when they argue about minority communities. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp40 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 \fs24\lang2057\langfe1038\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1038 
{\fs20\insrsid5644974 Even the political elite or certain circles of government are not free from bias. An example of this phenomenon: in 2000 a high-ranking government officer (sitting on the committee responsible for the co-ordination of the government
\rquote s Roma programme) proposed that Roma be offered free contraception as a governmental action, saying }{\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 \'93
at the present rate of reproduction all the money of the Hungarian budget is going to be wasted in virtually inefficient activities since the underprivileged strata are held back both materially and mentally by themselves\'94}{\fs20\insrsid5644974 
. (Following widespread protests, the public officer in question resigned his seat on the committee.) 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp40 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 Source: Bern\'e1th, 2002
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par In the past, public prejudices were reinforced through institutionalised examples. For example, there were serious experiments carried out to establish a scientific basis for \'93Roma crime\'94 (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Tauszik-T\'f3th, 1987), }{
\insrsid5644974 although research }{\b\insrsid5644974 (Tauber-V\'e9gh, 1982)}{\insrsid5644974 
 had already proved in the 1980s that criminality is no greater among Roma than it is among other groups living in similar conditions. This finding had no impact 
on public opinion towards Roma and did not influence the rhetoric of public figures. The stereotype of \'93Roma crime\'94 was also supported by the law enforcement system itself. Until the 1990s so-called \lquote Roma lines\rquote 
 were operated within the police force, carrying out offensive press activity. Although these lines were closed after the transition, we still had to wait until the middle of the decade to exclude \'93Roma origin\'94
 as a distinguishing mark from police vocabulary. }{\ul\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0 {\fs20\insrsid5644974 In 1982 the secretary of the Inter-Mini
sterial Committee co-ordinating the government programme wrote thus about \'93the main obstacles to a positive outcome of Roma issues\'94: }{\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 \'93
The most significant factor, however, is undoubtedly the widespread myth in public opinion that the government is devoting
 huge material resources to raising up the Roma population. This results in the mistaken belief in non-Roma society that Roma are being favoured by welfare policy at the expense of others.\'94 
\par }{\b\i\fs20\insrsid5644974 Source: Koz\'e1kn\'e9, 1984}{\b\fs20\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \qj \fi708\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 
\par In an internal memorandum (1996) the police superintendent of Hungary put it this way: \'93It is a violation of norms if the police apply phrases related to a minority or ethnic group in case of warrants or in descriptions of persons\'94
, thereby denying the frequent assumption that naming ethnic affiliation makes investigations easier. Such labelling \endash  in most cases \endash  is not suitable for defining bodily features and is objectionable from professional aspects as well. 

\par The timeliness of this statement is well illustrated by the findings of research carried out among Hungarian police officers (}{\b\insrsid5644974 Csepeli-\'d6rk\'e9ny-Sz\'e9kelyi, 1997):}{\insrsid5644974 
 according to more than half of the people surveyed, crime is a key element in Roma identity, and two thirds of them believe that incest is typical among Roma. It has to be noted, howev
er, that this research project itself is a part of the process initiated by the police force to fight anti-Roma prejudice within the organisation. 
\par In anti-Roma prejudice there is the several-century-long covert and contradictory tradition of \'93cultural racism\'94. Today, differences originating from the }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93specific\'94, \'93different\'94 }{\insrsid5644974 or}{
\i\insrsid5644974  \'93special\'94}{\insrsid5644974  Roma culture are referred to as explanation by everyone: the media, teachers, and the mayor approving an eviction order. 
\par }\pard \ql \fi709\li0\ri0\sb120\sl240\slmult0\widctlpar\faauto\ilvl12\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974 It is matter of regret that in the chapter on exclusion in the discussion material on the long-term strategy \endash 
 beyond holding the view that the main reason is the lack of knowledge about Roma \endash  it is pointed out again that: }{\i\insrsid5644974 \'93Among the reasons for exclusion
 a very important role is played by the way of life, and certain features of that way of life. This, however, often becomes the source of conflict in the relationship with the majority environment or the basis for prejudice projected on the Roma community
 as a whole. (...) Consequently, it is desirable to strengthen the institutions  - family support centres, children\rquote s welfare services, mentor networks \endash  capable of evoking and spreading cultural requirements related to way of life.\'94}{
\insrsid5644974 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid5644974  
\par }}